bims-tremyl Biomed News
on Therapy resistance biology in myeloid leukemia
Issue of 2021‒06‒27
thirty-five papers selected by
Paolo Gallipoli
Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London
  1. Fms-like tyrosine kinase 3-internal tandem duplications epigenetically activates checkpoint kinase 1 in acute myeloid leukemia cells.
  2. Germline ATG2B/GSKIP-containing 14q32 duplication predisposes to early clonal hematopoiesis leading to myeloid neoplasms.
  3. Methods Used to Make Lipid Nanoparticles to Deliver LNA Gapmers Against lncRNAs into Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) Blasts.
  4. Cohesin mutations in myeloid malignancies.
  5. Actin cytoskeleton deregulation confers midostaurin resistance in FLT3-mutant acute myeloid leukemia.
  6. A precision medicine classification for treatment of acute myeloid leukemia in older patients.
  7. Phase I First-in-Human Dose Escalation Study of the oral SF3B1 modulator H3B-8800 in myeloid neoplasms.
  8. Combined epigenetic and metabolic treatments overcome differentiation blockade in acute myeloid leukemia.
  9. TIM-3 in normal and malignant hematopoiesis: structure, function and signaling pathways.
  10. Clinical Benefits and Safety of FMS-Like Tyrosine Kinase 3 Inhibitors in Various Treatment Stages of Acute Myeloid Leukemia: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Network Meta-Analysis.
  11. Effective killing of acute myeloid leukemia by TIM-3 targeted chimeric antigen receptor T cells.
  12. Adrenomedullin Expression Characterizes Leukemia Stem Cells and Associates With an Inflammatory Signature in Acute Myeloid Leukemia.
  13. Nucleophosmin1 and isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 and 2 as measurable residual disease markers in acute myeloid leukemia.
  14. The AML microenvironment catalyzes a stepwise evolution to gilteritinib resistance.
  15. A phase 1b/2 study of azacitidine with PD-L1 antibody avelumab in relapsed/refractory acute myeloid leukemia.
  16. Clonal evolution of Philadelphia chromosome in acute myeloid leukemia after enasidenib treatment.
  17. Cell competition between wild-type and JAK2V617F mutant cells in a murine model of a myeloproliferative neoplasm.
  18. CD44 loss of function sensitizes AML cells to the BCL-2 inhibitor venetoclax by decreasing CXCL12-driven survival cues.
  19. RNA modifications in hematopoietic malignancies: A new research frontier.
  20. Break the lifeline of AML cells.
  21. Open-Label Phase II Prospective, Randomized, Controlled Study of Romyelocel-L Myeloid Progenitor Cells to Reduce Infection During Induction Chemotherapy for Acute Myeloid Leukemia.
  22. Clonal fitness inferred from time-series modelling of single-cell cancer genomes.
  23. Splicing factor mutations in hematologic malignancies.
  24. Small-molecule inhibitors targeting Polycomb repressive complex 1 RING domain.
  25. Eltrombopag for myelodysplastic syndromes or chronic myelomonocytic leukaemia with no excess blasts and thrombocytopenia: a French multicentre retrospective real-life study.
  26. Only SF3B1 mutation involving K700E independently predicts overall survival in myelodysplastic syndromes.
  27. Phase separation drives aberrant chromatin looping and cancer development.
  28. Preclinical evaluation of eltrombopag in a PDX model of myelodysplastic syndromes.
  29. Dissecting Clonal Hematopoiesis in Tissues of Classical Hodgkin Lymphoma Patients.
  30. Stepwise evolution of therapy resistance in AML.
  31. MPL overexpression induces a high level of mutant-CALR/MPL complex: a novel mechanism of ruxolitinib resistance in myeloproliferative neoplasms with CALR mutations.
  32. Posttransplant cyclophosphamide as GVHD prophylaxis for peripheral blood stem cell HLA-mismatched unrelated donor transplant.
  33. Incidence and Prognosis of Clonal Hematopoiesis in patients with Chronic Idiopathic Neutropenia.
  34. CPX-351 versus 7+3 cytarabine and daunorubicin chemotherapy in older adults with newly diagnosed high-risk or secondary acute myeloid leukaemia: 5-year results of a randomised, open-label, multicentre, phase 3 trial.
  35. The HIF complex recruits the histone methyltransferase SET1B to activate specific hypoxia-inducible genes.
  1. Sci Rep. 2021 Jun 24. 11(1): 13236
    Fms-like tyrosine kinase 3-internal tandem duplications epigenetically activates checkpoint kinase 1 in acute myeloid leukemia cells.
    Yudong Zhang, Lingli Yuan.
      It is not clear how Fms-like tyrosine kinase 3-internal tandem duplications (FLT3-ITD) regulates checkpoint kinase 1 (CHK1) in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). In this study, we investigated the regulatory effect of FLT3-ITD on CHK1. Our results showed that CHK1 was highly expressed in FLT3-ITD positive AML. The overall survival rate and disease-free survival rate of AML patients with high CHK1 level were lower than those of patients with low CHK1 level. Mechanistically, FLT3-ITD recruited p300 to the CHK1 promoter and subsequently acetylated H3K27, thereby enhancing the transcription of CHK1. Interfering with the expression of CHK1 significantly inhibited the cell proliferation and induced cell apoptosis in FLT3-ITD positive MV4-11 cells. In addition, CHK1 knockdown promoted the sensitivity of MV4-11 cells to the epigenetic inhibitors JQ1 and C646. This study discovers a new therapeutic target for FLT3-ITD + AML and provided evidence for the combination of epigenetic inhibitors for AML treatment.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-92566-5
  2. Leukemia. 2021 Jun 25.
    Germline ATG2B/GSKIP-containing 14q32 duplication predisposes to early clonal hematopoiesis leading to myeloid neoplasms.
    Jean Pegliasco, Pierre Hirsch, Christophe Marzac, Françoise Isnard, Jean-Côme Meniane, Caroline Deswarte, Philippe Pellet, Céline Lemaitre, Gwendoline Leroy, Graciela Rabadan Moraes, Hélène Guermouche, Barbara Schmaltz-Panneau, Florence Pasquier, Chrystelle Colas, Patrick R Benusiglio, Odile Bera, Jean-Henri Bourhis, Eolia Brissot, Olivier Caron, Samy Chraibi, Pascale Cony-Makhoul, Christine Delaunay-Darivon, Simona Lapusan, Flore Sicre de Fontbrune, Pascal Fuseau, Albert Najman, William Vainchenker, François Delhommeau, Jean-Baptiste Micol, Isabelle Plo, Christine Bellanné-Chantelot.
      The germline predisposition associated with the autosomal dominant inheritance of the 14q32 duplication implicating ATG2B/GSKIP genes is characterized by a wide clinical spectrum of myeloid neoplasms. We analyzed 12 asymptomatic carriers and 52 patients aged 18-74 years from six families, by targeted sequencing of 41 genes commonly mutated in myeloid malignancies. We found that 75% of healthy carriers displayed early clonal hematopoiesis mainly driven by TET2 mutations. Molecular landscapes of patients revealed two distinct routes of clonal expansion and leukemogenesis. The first route is characterized by the clonal dominance of myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN)-driver events associated with TET2 mutations in half of cases and mutations affecting splicing and/or the RAS pathway in one-third of cases, leading to the early development of MPN, mostly essential thrombocythemia, with a high risk of transformation (50% after 10 years). The second route is distinguished by the absence of MPN-driver mutations and leads to AML without prior MPN. These patients mostly harbored a genomic landscape specific to acute myeloid leukemia secondary to myelodysplastic syndrome. An unexpected result was the total absence of DNMT3A mutations in this cohort. Our results suggest that the germline duplication constitutively mimics hematopoiesis aging by favoring TET2 clonal hematopoiesis.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41375-021-01319-w
  3. Methods Mol Biol. 2021 ;2348 167-174
    Methods Used to Make Lipid Nanoparticles to Deliver LNA Gapmers Against lncRNAs into Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) Blasts.
    Chun-Tien Kuo, Robert Lee, Ramiro Garzon.
      Developing strategies to target lncRNAs are needed. In this chapter, we describe in detail a method to deliver antisense oligonucleotides into acute myeloid leukemia cells using lipid nanoparticles tagged with the transferrin receptor. While this chapter is focused on the delivery method, we also discuss important considerations about the design of antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs). The strategy described here has been used successfully to deliver ASOs into leukemic blasts and stem cells.
    Keywords:  Lipid nanoparticles; LncRNAs; Therapeutics
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1581-2_11
  4. Blood. 2021 Jun 22. pii: blood.2019004259. [Epub ahead of print]
    Cohesin mutations in myeloid malignancies.
    Joahnn-Christoph Jann, Zuzana Tothova.
      Cohesin is a multi-subunit protein complex that forms a ring-like structure around DNA. Cohesin is essential for sister chromatid cohesion, chromatin organization, transcriptional regulation and DNA damage repair, and plays a major role in dynamically shaping the genome architecture and maintaining DNA integrity. The core complex subunits STAG2, RAD21, SMC1 and SMC3, as well as its modulators PDS5A/B, WAPL and NIPBL, have been found to be recurrently mutated in hematologic and solid malignancies. These mutations are found across the full spectrum of myeloid neoplasia, including pediatric Down Syndrome-associated acute megakaryoblastic leukemia (DS-AMKL), myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS), chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML), and de-novo and secondary acute myeloid leukemia (AML). The mechanisms by which cohesin mutations act as drivers of clonal expansion and disease progression are still poorly understood. Recent studies have described the impact of cohesin alterations on self-renewal and differentiation of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPC), which are associated with changes in chromatin and epigenetic state directing lineage commitment, as well as genomic integrity. Here, we will review the role of the cohesin complex in healthy and malignant hematopoiesis. We will discuss clinical implications of cohesin mutations in myeloid malignancies and discuss opportunities for therapeutic targeting.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.2019004259
  5. Commun Biol. 2021 Jun 25. 4(1): 799
    Actin cytoskeleton deregulation confers midostaurin resistance in FLT3-mutant acute myeloid leukemia.
    Andoni Garitano-Trojaola, Ana Sancho, Ralph Götz, Patrick Eiring, Susanne Walz, Hardikkumar Jetani, Jesus Gil-Pulido, Matteo Claudio Da Via, Eva Teufel, Nadine Rhodes, Larissa Haertle, Estibaliz Arellano-Viera, Raoul Tibes, Andreas Rosenwald, Leo Rasche, Michael Hudecek, Markus Sauer, Jürgen Groll, Hermann Einsele, Sabrina Kraus, Martin K Kortüm.
      The presence of FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3-internal tandem duplication (FLT3-ITD) is one of the most frequent mutations in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and is associated with an unfavorable prognosis. FLT3 inhibitors, such as midostaurin, are used clinically but fail to entirely eradicate FLT3-ITD + AML. This study introduces a new perspective and highlights the impact of RAC1-dependent actin cytoskeleton remodeling on resistance to midostaurin in AML. RAC1 hyperactivation leads resistance via hyperphosphorylation of the positive regulator of actin polymerization N-WASP and antiapoptotic BCL-2. RAC1/N-WASP, through ARP2/3 complex activation, increases the number of actin filaments, cell stiffness and adhesion forces to mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) being identified as a biomarker of resistance. Midostaurin resistance can be overcome by a combination of midostaruin, the BCL-2 inhibitor venetoclax and the RAC1 inhibitor Eht1864 in midostaurin-resistant AML cell lines and primary samples, providing the first evidence of a potential new treatment approach to eradicate FLT3-ITD + AML.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-021-02215-w
  6. J Hematol Oncol. 2021 Jun 23. 14(1): 96
    A precision medicine classification for treatment of acute myeloid leukemia in older patients.
    Alice S Mims, Jessica Kohlschmidt, Uma Borate, James S Blachly, Shelley Orwick, Ann-Kathrin Eisfeld, Dimitrios Papaioannou, Deedra Nicolet, Krzysztof Mrόzek, Eytan Stein, Bhavana Bhatnagar, Richard M Stone, Jonathan E Kolitz, Eunice S Wang, Bayard L Powell, Amy Burd, Ross L Levine, Brian J Druker, Clara D Bloomfield, John C Byrd.
      BACKGROUND: Older patients (≥ 60 years) with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) often have multiple, sequentially acquired, somatic mutations that drive leukemogenesis and are associated with poor outcome. Beat AML is a Leukemia and Lymphoma Society-sponsored, multicenter umbrella study that algorithmically segregates AML patients based upon cytogenetic and dominant molecular abnormalities (variant allele frequencies (VAF) ≥ 0.2) into different cohorts to select for targeted therapies. During the conception of the Beat AML design, a historical dataset was needed to help in the design of the genomic algorithm for patient assignment and serve as the basis for the statistical design of individual genomic treatment substudies for the Beat AML study.METHODS: We classified 563 newly diagnosed older AML patients treated with standard intensive chemotherapy on trials conducted by Cancer and Leukemia Group B based on the same genomic algorithm and assessed clinical outcomes.
    RESULTS: Our classification identified core-binding factor and NPM1-mutated/FLT3-ITD-negative groups as having the best outcomes, with 30-day early death (ED) rates of 0 and 20%, respectively, and median overall survival (OS) of > 1 year and 3-year OS rates of ≥ 20%. All other genomic groups had ED rates of 17-42%, median OS ≤ 1 year and 3-year OS rates of ≤ 15%.
    CONCLUSIONS: By classifying patients through this genomic algorithm, outcomes were poor and not unexpected from a non-algorithmic, non-dominant VAF approach. The exception is 30-day ED rate typically is not available for intensive induction for individual genomic groups and therefore difficult to compare outcomes with targeted therapeutics. This Alliance data supported the use of this algorithm for patient assignment at the initiation of the Beat AML study. This outcome data was also used for statistical design for Beat AML substudies for individual genomic groups to determine goals for improvement from intensive induction and hopefully lead to more rapid approval of new therapies. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov Identifiers: NCT00048958 (CALGB 8461), NCT00900224 (CALGB 20202), NCT00003190 (CALGB 9720), NCT00085124 (CALGB 10201), NCT00742625 (CALGB 10502), NCT01420926 (CALGB 11002), NCT00039377 (CALGB 10801), and NCT01253070 (CALGB 11001).
    Keywords:  Acute myeloid leukemia; Cytogenetics; Mutation; Outcome; Precision medicine
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1186/s13045-021-01110-5
  7. Leukemia. 2021 Jun 25.
    Phase I First-in-Human Dose Escalation Study of the oral SF3B1 modulator H3B-8800 in myeloid neoplasms.
    David P Steensma, Martin Wermke, Virginia M Klimek, Peter L Greenberg, Patricia Font, Rami S Komrokji, Jay Yang, Andrew M Brunner, Hetty E Carraway, Lionel Ades, Aref Al-Kali, Juan M Alonso-Dominguez, Ana Alfonso-Piérola, Catherine C Coombs, H Joachim Deeg, Ian Flinn, James M Foran, Guillermo Garcia-Manero, Michael B Maris, Malgorzata McMasters, Jean-Baptiste Micol, Jaime Perez De Oteyza, Felicitas Thol, Eunice S Wang, Justin M Watts, Justin Taylor, Richard Stone, Vikram Gourineni, Alyssa J Marino, Huilan Yao, Benoit Destenaves, Xiaobin Yuan, Kun Yu, Sara Dar, Lernik Ohanjanian, Keisuke Kuida, Jianjun Xiao, Catherine Scholz, Antonio Gualberto, Uwe Platzbecker.
      We conducted a phase I clinical trial of H3B-8800, an oral small molecule that binds Splicing Factor 3B1 (SF3B1), in patients with MDS, CMML, or AML. Among 84 enrolled patients (42 MDS, 4 CMML and 38 AML), 62 were red blood cell (RBC) transfusion dependent at study entry. Dose escalation cohorts examined two once-daily dosing regimens: schedule I (5 days on/9 days off, range of doses studied 1-40 mg, n = 65) and schedule II (21 days on/7 days off, 7-20 mg, n = 19); 27 patients received treatment for ≥180 days. The most common treatment-related, treatment-emergent adverse events included diarrhea, nausea, fatigue, and vomiting. No complete or partial responses meeting IWG criteria were observed; however, RBC transfusion free intervals >56 days were observed in nine patients who were transfusion dependent at study entry (15%). Of 15 MDS patients with missense SF3B1 mutations, five experienced RBC transfusion independence (TI). Elevated pre-treatment expression of aberrant transcripts of Transmembrane Protein 14C (TMEM14C), an SF3B1 splicing target encoding a mitochondrial porphyrin transporter, was observed in MDS patients experiencing RBC TI. In summary, H3B-8800 treatment was associated with mostly low-grade TAEs and induced RBC TI in a biomarker-defined subset of MDS.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41375-021-01328-9
  8. iScience. 2021 Jun 25. 24(6): 102651
    Combined epigenetic and metabolic treatments overcome differentiation blockade in acute myeloid leukemia.
    Barry M Zee, Kamrine E Poels, Cong-Hui Yao, Kimihito C Kawabata, Gongwei Wu, Cihangir Duy, William D Jacobus, Elizabeth Senior, Jennifer E Endress, Ashwini Jambhekar, Scott B Lovitch, Jiexian Ma, Abhinav Dhall, Isaac S Harris, M Andres Blanco, David B Sykes, Jonathan D Licht, David M Weinstock, Ari Melnick, Marcia C Haigis, Franziska Michor, Yang Shi.
      A hallmark of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is the inability of self-renewing malignant cells to mature into a non-dividing terminally differentiated state. This differentiation block has been linked to dysregulation of multiple cellular processes, including transcriptional, chromatin, and metabolic regulation. The transcription factor HOXA9 and the histone demethylase LSD1 are examples of such regulators that promote differentiation blockade in AML. To identify metabolic targets that interact with LSD1 inhibition to promote myeloid maturation, we screened a small molecule library to identify druggable substrates. We found that differentiation caused by LSD1 inhibition is enhanced by combined perturbation of purine nucleotide salvage and de novo lipogenesis pathways, and identified multiple lines of evidence to support the specificity of these pathways and suggest a potential basis of how perturbation of these pathways may interact synergistically to promote myeloid differentiation. In sum, these findings suggest potential drug combination strategies in the treatment of AML.
    Keywords:  molecular biology; stem cell research; systems biology
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2021.102651
  9. Cancer Sci. 2021 Jun 22.
    TIM-3 in normal and malignant hematopoiesis: structure, function and signaling pathways.
    Yoshikane Kikushige.
      Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is hierarchically organized by self-renewing leukemic stem cells (LSCs). LSCs originate from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) by acquiring multistep leukemogenic events. To specifically eradicate LSCs, while keeping normal HSCs intact, the discrimination of LSCs from HSCs is important. We have identified T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3 (TIM-3) as an LSC-specific surface molecule in human myeloid malignancies, and demonstrated its essential function in maintaining the self-renewal ability of LSCs. TIM-3 has been intensively investigated as a "co-inhibitory" or "immune checkpoint" molecule of T cells. However, little is known about its distinct function in T cells and myeloid malignancies. In this review, we discuss the structure of TIM-3, its function in normal blood cells and LSCs, emphasizing the specific signaling pathways involved, as well as the therapeutic applications of TIM-3 molecules in human myeloid malignancies.
    Keywords:  T-cell immunity; TIM-3; acute myeloid leukemia; and immune checkpoint inhibitor; leukemic stem cells
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1111/cas.15042
  10. Front Oncol. 2021 ;11 686013
    Clinical Benefits and Safety of FMS-Like Tyrosine Kinase 3 Inhibitors in Various Treatment Stages of Acute Myeloid Leukemia: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Network Meta-Analysis.
    Qingyu Xu, Shujiao He, Li Yu.
      Background: Given the controversial roles of FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 inhibitors (FLT3i) in various treatment stages of acute myeloid leukemia (AML), this study was designed to assess this problem and further explored which FLT3i worked more effectively.Methods: A systematic review, meta-analysis and network meta-analysis (NMA) were conducted by filtering PubMed, Embase, Cochrane library, and Chinese databases. We included studies comparing therapeutic effects between FLT3i and non-FLT3i group in AML, particularly FLT3(+) patients, or demonstrating the efficiency of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) in FLT3(+) AML. Relative risk (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) was used for estimating complete remission (CR), early death and toxicity. Hazard ratio (HR) was used to assess overall survival (OS), event-free survival (EFS), relapse-free survival (RFS) and cumulative incidence of relapse (CIR).
    Results: After addressing all criteria, 39 studies were eventually analyzed. Better CR was accomplished by FLT3i in untreated AML (RR 0.88, p = 0.04) and refractory and relapsed FLT3(+) AML (rrAML) (RR 0.61, p < 0.01) compared to non-FLT3i arm, followed by improved survival (untreated AML: OS, HR 0.76; EFS, HR 0.67; RFS, HR 0.72; all p < 0.01; FLT3(+) rrAML: OS, HR 0.60, p < 0.01; RFS, HR 0.40, p = 0.01). In addition, allo-HSCT improved survival in FLT3(+) AML (OS, HR 0.53; EFS, HR 0.50; RFS, HR 0.57; CIR, HR 0.26; all p < 0.01), which was further prolonged by FLT3i administrated after allo-HSCT (OS, HR 0.45; RFS, HR 0.34; CIR, HR 0.32; all p < 0.01). Additionally, FLT3i consistently improved OS (p < 0.05) regardless of FLT3-ITD ratio, when compared to non-FLT3i group. Besides, FLT3i showed significantly increased risk of thrombocytopenia, neutropenia, anemia, skin- and cardiac-related adverse effects, increased alanine aminotransferase, and increased risk of cough and dyspnea (p < 0.05). In NMA, gilteritinib showed the highest probability for improved prognosis.
    Conclusions: FLT3i safely improved prognosis in induction/reinduction stage of FLT3(+) AML and further boosted survival benefits from allo-HSCT as maintenance therapy, suggesting better prognosis if FLT3i is combined before and after allo-HSCT. In NMA, gilteritinib potentially achieved the best prognosis, which should be identified in direct trials.
    Keywords:  FLT3 inhibitor; acute myeloid leukemia; meta-analysis; network meta-analysis; response; survival; toxicity
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2021.686013
  11. Mol Cancer Ther. 2021 Jun 22. pii: molcanther.0155.2020. [Epub ahead of print]
    Effective killing of acute myeloid leukemia by TIM-3 targeted chimeric antigen receptor T cells.
    Wen-Hsin Sandy Lee, Zhiyong Ye, Alice M S Cheung, Y P Sharon Goh, Hsueh Ling Janice Oh, Ravisankar Rajarethinam, Siok Ping Yeo, Mun Kuen Soh, Esther Hian Li Chan, Lip Kun Tan, Soo-Yong Tan, Charles Chuah, Wee Joo Chng, John E Connolly, Cheng-I Wang.
      Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is an aggressive disease with poor outcomes, overwhelmingly due to relapse. Minimal Residual disease (MRD), defined as the persistence of leukemic cells after chemotherapy treatment, is thought to be the major cause of relapse. The origins of relapse in AML have been traced to rare therapy-resistant leukemic stem cells (LSCs) that are already present at diagnosis. Effective treatment strategies for long-term remission are lacking, as it has been difficult to eliminate LSCs with conventional therapy. Here we proposed a new approach based on the chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-directed T lymphocytes, targeting T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain 3 (TIM-3) to treat MRD in AML patients. TIM-3 is selected as the target because it is highly expressed on AML blasts and LSCs in most subtypes regardless of patient's genetic characteristics and treatment course. Moreover, it is absent in the normal hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), granulocytes, naïve lymphocytes and most normal non-hematopoietic tissues. Using a naïve human Fab phage display library, we isolated an anti-human TIM-3 antibody and designed a second-generation anti-TIM-3 CAR. Our anti-TIM-3 CAR T cells exhibit potent anti-leukemic activity against AML cell lines and primary AML blasts, and in the mouse models. More importantly, we demonstrate efficient killing of the primary LSCs directly isolated from the patients. Hence, eradication of the LSCs present in the MRD by anti-TIM-3 CAR T cells therapy following the first line treatment may improve the clinical outcomes of AML patients.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1158/1535-7163.MCT-20-0155
  12. Front Oncol. 2021 ;11 684396
    Adrenomedullin Expression Characterizes Leukemia Stem Cells and Associates With an Inflammatory Signature in Acute Myeloid Leukemia.
    Giorgia Simonetti, Davide Angeli, Elisabetta Petracci, Eugenio Fonzi, Susanna Vedovato, Alessandra Sperotto, Antonella Padella, Martina Ghetti, Anna Ferrari, Valentina Robustelli, Rosa Di Liddo, Maria Teresa Conconi, Cristina Papayannidis, Claudio Cerchione, Michela Rondoni, Annalisa Astolfi, Emanuela Ottaviani, Giovanni Martinelli, Michele Gottardi.
      Adrenomedullin (ADM) is a hypotensive and vasodilator peptide belonging to the calcitonin gene-related peptide family. It is secreted in vitro by endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells, and is significantly upregulated by a number of stimuli. Moreover, ADM participates in the regulation of hematopoietic compartment, solid tumors and leukemias, such as acute myeloid leukemia (AML). To better characterize ADM involvement in AML pathogenesis, we investigated its expression during human hematopoiesis and in leukemic subsets, based on a morphological, cytogenetic and molecular characterization and in T cells from AML patients. In hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells and T lymphocytes from healthy subjects, ADM transcript was barely detectable. It was expressed at low levels by megakaryocytes and erythroblasts, while higher levels were measured in neutrophils, monocytes and plasma cells. Moreover, cells populating the hematopoietic niche, including mesenchymal stem cells, showed to express ADM. ADM was overexpressed in AML cells versus normal CD34+ cells and in the subset of leukemia compared with hematopoietic stem cells. In parallel, we detected a significant variation of ADM expression among cytogenetic subgroups, measuring the highest levels in inv(16)/t(16;16) or complex karyotype AML. According to the mutational status of AML-related genes, the analysis showed a lower expression of ADM in FLT3-ITD, NPM1-mutated AML and FLT3-ITD/NPM1-mutated cases compared with wild-type ones. Moreover, ADM expression had a negative impact on overall survival within the favorable risk class, while showing a potential positive impact within the subgroup receiving a not-intensive treatment. The expression of 135 genes involved in leukemogenesis, regulation of cell proliferation, ferroptosis, protection from apoptosis, HIF-1α signaling, JAK-STAT pathway, immune and inflammatory responses was correlated with ADM levels in the bone marrow cells of at least two AML cohorts. Moreover, ADM was upregulated in CD4+ T and CD8+ T cells from AML patients compared with healthy controls and some ADM co-expressed genes participate in a signature of immune tolerance that characterizes CD4+ T cells from leukemic patients. Overall, our study shows that ADM expression in AML associates with a stem cell phenotype, inflammatory signatures and genes related to immunosuppression, all factors that contribute to therapy resistance and disease relapse.
    Keywords:  acute myeloid leukemia; adrenomedullin; hematopoiesis; inflammation; leukemia stem cells
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2021.684396
  13. PLoS One. 2021 ;16(6): e0253386
    Nucleophosmin1 and isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 and 2 as measurable residual disease markers in acute myeloid leukemia.
    Petra Kövy, Zoltán Őrfi, András Bors, András Kozma, László Gopcsa, János Dolgos, Nóra Lovas, József Harasztdombi, Viktor Lakatos, Ágnes Király, Gábor Mikala, István Vályi-Nagy, Péter Reményi, Hajnalka Andrikovics.
      Monitoring measurable residual disease (MRD) in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) plays an important role in predicting relapse and outcome. The applicability of the leukemia-initiating nucleophosmin1 (NPM1) gene mutations in MRD detection is well-established, while that of isocitrate dehydrogenase1/2 (IDH1/2) mutations are matter of debate. The aim of this study was to investigate the stability of NPM1 and IDH1/2 mutations at diagnosis and relapse retrospectively in 916 adult AML patients. The prognostic value of MRD was evaluated by droplet digital PCR on the DNA level in a selected subgroup of patients in remission. NPM1 re-emerged at relapse in 91% (72/79), while IDH1/2 in 87% (20/23) of mutation-positive cases at diagnosis. NPM1 mutation did not develop at relapse, on the contrary novel IDH1/2 mutations occurred in 3% (3/93) of previously mutation-negative cases. NPM1 MRD-positivity after induction (n = 116) proved to be an independent, adverse risk factor (MRDpos 24-month OS: 39.3±6.2% versus MRDneg: 58.5±7.5%, p = 0.029; HR: 2.16; 95%CI: 1.25-3.74, p = 0.006). In the favorable subgroup of mutated NPM1 without fms-like tyrosine kinase 3 internal tandem duplication (FLT3-ITD) or with low allelic ratio, NPM1 MRD provides a valuable prognostic biomarker (NPM1 MRDpos versus MRDneg 24-month OS: 42.9±6.7% versus 66.7±8.6%; p = 0.01). IDH1/2 MRD-positivity after induction (n = 62) was also associated with poor survival (MRDpos 24-month OS: 41.3±9.2% versus MRDneg: 62.5±9.0%, p = 0.003; HR 2.81 95%CI 1.09-7.23, p = 0.032). While NPM1 variant allele frequency decreased below 2.5% in remission in all patients, IDH1/2 mutations (typically IDH2 R140Q) persisted in 24% of cases. Our results support that NPM1 MRD even at DNA level is a reliable prognostic factor, while IDH1/2 mutations may represent pre-leukemic, founder or subclonal drivers.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253386
  14. Cancer Cell. 2021 Jun 23. pii: S1535-6108(21)00286-5. [Epub ahead of print]
    The AML microenvironment catalyzes a stepwise evolution to gilteritinib resistance.
    Sunil K Joshi, Tamilla Nechiporuk, Daniel Bottomly, Paul D Piehowski, Julie A Reisz, Janét Pittsenbarger, Andy Kaempf, Sara J C Gosline, Yi-Ting Wang, Joshua R Hansen, Marina A Gritsenko, Chelsea Hutchinson, Karl K Weitz, Jamie Moon, Francesca Cendali, Thomas L Fillmore, Chia-Feng Tsai, Athena A Schepmoes, Tujin Shi, Osama A Arshad, Jason E McDermott, Ozgun Babur, Kevin Watanabe-Smith, Emek Demir, Angelo D'Alessandro, Tao Liu, Cristina E Tognon, Jeffrey W Tyner, Shannon K McWeeney, Karin D Rodland, Brian J Druker, Elie Traer.
      Our study details the stepwise evolution of gilteritinib resistance in FLT3-mutated acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Early resistance is mediated by the bone marrow microenvironment, which protects residual leukemia cells. Over time, leukemia cells evolve intrinsic mechanisms of resistance, or late resistance. We mechanistically define both early and late resistance by integrating whole-exome sequencing, CRISPR-Cas9, metabolomics, proteomics, and pharmacologic approaches. Early resistant cells undergo metabolic reprogramming, grow more slowly, and are dependent upon Aurora kinase B (AURKB). Late resistant cells are characterized by expansion of pre-existing NRAS mutant subclones and continued metabolic reprogramming. Our model closely mirrors the timing and mutations of AML patients treated with gilteritinib. Pharmacological inhibition of AURKB resensitizes both early resistant cell cultures and primary leukemia cells from gilteritinib-treated AML patients. These findings support a combinatorial strategy to target early resistant AML cells with AURKB inhibitors and gilteritinib before the expansion of pre-existing resistance mutations occurs.
    Keywords:  AML; Aurora kinase B; FLT3; NRAS; drug resistance; gilteritinib; lipid metabolism; quizartinib; tumor microenvironment; tyrosine kinase inhibitor
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2021.06.003
  15. Cancer. 2021 Jun 25.
    A phase 1b/2 study of azacitidine with PD-L1 antibody avelumab in relapsed/refractory acute myeloid leukemia.
    Kapil Saxena, Shelley M Herbrich, Naveen Pemmaraju, Tapan M Kadia, Courtney D DiNardo, Gautam Borthakur, Sherry A Pierce, Elias Jabbour, Sa A Wang, Carlos Bueso-Ramos, Sanam Loghavi, Guillin Tang, Cora M Cheung, Lynette Alexander, Steven Kornblau, Michael Andreeff, Guillermo Garcia-Manero, Farhad Ravandi, Marina Y Konopleva, Naval Daver.
      BACKGROUND: Patients with relapsed/refractory (R/R) acute myeloid leukemia (AML) have limited treatment options. In preclinical models of AML, inhibition of the PD-1/PD-L1 axis demonstrated antileukemic activity. Avelumab is an anti-PD-L1 immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) approved in multiple solid tumors. The authors conducted a phase 1b/2 clinical trial to assess the safety and efficacy of azacitidine with avelumab in patients with R/R AML.METHODS: Patients aged ≥18 years who had R/R AML received azacitidine 75 mg/m2 on days 1 through 7 and avelumab on days 1 and 14 of 28-day cycles.
    RESULTS: Nineteen patients were treated. The median age was 66 years (range, 22-83 years), 100% had European LeukemiaNet 2017 adverse-risk disease, and 63% had prior exposure to a hypomethylating agent. Avelumab was dosed at 3 mg/kg for the first 7 patients and at 10 mg/kg for the subsequent 12 patients. The most common grade ≥3 treatment-related adverse events were neutropenia and anemia in 2 patients each. Two patients experienced immune-related adverse events of grade 2 and grade 3 pneumonitis, respectively. The overall complete remission rate was 10.5%, and both were complete remission with residual thrombocytopenia. The median overall survival was 4.8 months. Bone marrow blasts were analyzed for immune-related markers by mass cytometry and demonstrated significantly higher expression of PD-L2 compared with PD-L1 both pretherapy and at all time points during therapy, with increasing PD-L2 expression on therapy.
    CONCLUSIONS: Although the combination of azacitidine and avelumab was well tolerated, clinical activity was limited. High expression of PD-L2 on bone marrow blasts may be an important mechanism of resistance to anti-PD-L1 therapy in AML.
    LAY SUMMARY: This report describes the results of a phase 1b/2 study of azacitidine with the anti-PD-L1 immune checkpoint inhibitor avelumab for patients with relapsed/refractory acute myeloid leukemia (AML). The clinical activity of the combination therapy was modest, with an overall response rate of 10.5%. However, mass cytometry analysis revealed significantly higher expression of PD-L2 compared with PD-L1 on AML blasts from all patients who were analyzed at all time points. These data suggest a novel potential role for PD-L2 as a means of AML immune escape.
    Keywords:  PD-1; PD-L1; PD-L2; avelumab; azacitidine; checkpoint inhibitor; mass cytometry
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.33690
  16. Leuk Lymphoma. 2021 Jun 21. 1-4
    Clonal evolution of Philadelphia chromosome in acute myeloid leukemia after enasidenib treatment.
    Lori A Ramkissoon, Kaitlyn Buhlinger, Angela Nichols, Catherine C Coombs, Matthew C Foster, Jonathan Galeotti, Kathleen Kaiser-Rogers, Daniel R Richardson, Nathan D Montgomery, Joshua F Zeidner.
      
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1080/10428194.2021.1941928
  17. Exp Hematol. 2021 Jun 18. pii: S0301-472X(21)00204-6. [Epub ahead of print]
    Cell competition between wild-type and JAK2V617F mutant cells in a murine model of a myeloproliferative neoplasm.
    Melissa Castiglione, Haotian Zhang, Kenneth Kaushansky, Huichun Zhan.
      The myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) are characterized by overproduction of mature blood cells and increased risk of transformation to frank leukemia. The acquired kinase mutation JAK2V617F plays a central role in a majority of patients with these diseases. As MPNs are clonal stem cell disorders (i.e. arise from a single stem cell which eventually expands), the hematopoietic stem/progenitor cell (HSPC) compartment in MPNs is heterogeneous with the presence of both JAK2 wild-type and JAK2V617F mutant cells. Mechanisms responsible for the mutant stem cell expansion in MPNs are not fully understood. Utilizing in vitro co-culture assays and in vivo competitive transplantation assays, we show that the presence of wild-type cells alters both the gene expression profile and cellular function of JAK2V617F mutant HSPCs and inhibits the expansion of co-existing JAK2V617F mutant cells in a normal microenvironment. In contrast, we found that a microenvironment bearing the mutant kinase promotes JAK2V617F mutant HSPC expansion over wild-type cells due in part to altered CXCL12/CXCR4 signaling. Further understanding of the molecular mechanisms controlling the competitive interactions between normal and JAK2V617F mutant cells, and how these mechanisms break down during MPN disease progression hold great potential for advances in treating patients with these diseases.
    Keywords:  Cell competition; Microenvironment; Myeloproliferative neoplasm
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exphem.2021.06.003
  18. Blood. 2021 06 03. pii: blood.2020006343. [Epub ahead of print]
    CD44 loss of function sensitizes AML cells to the BCL-2 inhibitor venetoclax by decreasing CXCL12-driven survival cues.
    Xiaobing Yu, Leonel Munoz-Sagredo, Karolin Streule, Patricia Muschong, Elisabeth Bayer, Romina J Walter, Julia C Gutjahr, Richard Greil, Miguel L Concha, Carsten Müller-Tidow, Tanja Nicole Hartmann, Véronique Orian-Rousseau.
      Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) has a poor prognosis under the current standard of care. In recent years, venetoclax, a BCL-2 inhibitor, was approved to treat patients, ineligible for intensive induction chemotherapy. Complete remission rates with venetoclax-based therapies are, however, hampered by minimal residual disease (MRD) in a proportion of patients, leading to relapse. MRD is due to leukemic stem cells retained in bone marrow protective environments; activation of the CXCL12/CXCR4 pathway was shown to be relevant to this process. An important role is also played by cell adhesion molecules such as CD44, which has been shown to be crucial for AML development. Here we show that CD44 is involved in CXCL12 promotion of resistance to venetoclax-induced apoptosis in human AML cell lines and AML patient samples which could be abrogated by CD44 knockdown, knockout or blocking with an anti-CD44 antibody. Split-Venus biomolecular fluorescence complementation showed that CD44 and CXCR4 physically associate at the cell membrane upon CXCL12 induction. In the venetoclax-resistant OCI-AML3 cell line, CXCL12 promoted an increase in the proportion of cells expressing high levels of embryonic-stem-cell core transcription factors (ESC-TFs: Sox2, Oct4, Nanog), abrogated by CD44 knockdown. This ESC-TF-expressing subpopulation which could be selected by venetoclax treatment, exhibited a basally-enhanced resistance to apoptosis, and expressed higher levels of CD44. Finally, we developed a novel AML xenograft model in zebrafish, showing that CD44 knockout sensitizes OCI-AML3 cells to venetoclax treatment in vivo. Our study shows that CD44 is a potential molecular target to sensitize AML cells to venetoclax-based therapies.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.2020006343
  19. Blood. 2021 Jun 22. pii: blood.2019004263. [Epub ahead of print]
    RNA modifications in hematopoietic malignancies: A new research frontier.
    Ying Qing, Rui Su, Jianjun Chen.
      Both protein-coding and noncoding RNAs can be decorated with a wealth of chemical modifications and such modifications coordinately orchestrate gene expression during normal hematopoietic differentiation and development. However, aberrant expression and/or dysfunction of the relevant RNA modification modulators/regulators ("writers", "erasers", and "readers") drive the initiation and progression of hematopoietic malignancies, and targeting these dysregulated modulators holds potent therapeutic potential for the treatment of hematopoietic malignancies. In this review, we summarize current progress in the understanding of the biological functions and underlying mechanisms of RNA modifications in normal and malignant hematopoiesis, with a focus on the N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification, and discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting RNA modifications for the treatment of hematopoietic malignancies, especially acute myeloid leukemia (AML).
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.2019004263
  20. Blood. 2021 Jun 24. 137(25): 3465-3467
    Break the lifeline of AML cells.
    Yoko Tabe, Marina Konopleva.
      
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.2021011475
  21. J Clin Oncol. 2021 Jun 22. JCO2001739
    Open-Label Phase II Prospective, Randomized, Controlled Study of Romyelocel-L Myeloid Progenitor Cells to Reduce Infection During Induction Chemotherapy for Acute Myeloid Leukemia.
    Pinkal M Desai, Janice Brown, Saar Gill, Melham M Solh, Luke P Akard, Jack W Hsu, Celalettin Ustun, Charalambos Andreadis, Olga Frankfurt, James M Foran, John Lister, Gary J Schiller, Matthew J Wieduwilt, John M Pagel, Patrick J Stiff, Delong Liu, Irum Khan, Wendy Stock, Suman Kambhampati, Martin S Tallman, Lawrence Morris, John Edwards, Iskra Pusic, Hagop M Kantarjian, Richard Mamelok, Alicia Wong, Rodney Van Syoc, Lois Kellerman, Swapna Panuganti, Ramkumar Mandalam, Camille N Abboud, Farhad Ravandi.
      PURPOSE: Standard cytotoxic induction chemotherapy for acute myeloid leukemia (AML) results in prolonged neutropenia and risk of infection. Romyelocel-L is a universal, allogeneic myeloid progenitor cell product being studied to reduce infection during induction chemotherapy.PATIENTS AND METHODS: One hundred sixty-three patients with de novo AML (age ≥ 55 years) receiving induction chemotherapy were randomly assigned on day 0 (d0), of whom 120 were evaluable. Subjects received either romyelocel-L infusion on d9 with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) starting daily d14 (treatment group) or G-CSF daily alone on d14 (control) until absolute neutrophil count recovery to 500/µL. End points included days in febrile episode, microbiologically defined infections, clinically diagnosed infection, and days in hospital.
    RESULTS: Mean days in febrile episode was shorter in the treatment arm from d15 through d28 (2.36 v 3.90; P = .02). Similarly, a trend toward decreased microbiologically defined infections and clinically diagnosed infection in the treatment arm was observed from d9 to d28 (35.6% v 47.5%; P = .09), reaching a statistically significant difference from d15 to d28 (6.8% v 27.9%; P = .002). Because of this, antibacterial or antifungal use for treatment of an infection was significantly less in the treatment group (d9-d28: 44.1% v 63.9%; P = .01). Significantly fewer patients in the treatment arm received empiric antifungals from d9 tod28 (42.4% v 63.9%; P = .02) and d15-d28 (42.4% v 62.3%; P = .02). Patients in the treatment arm also had 3.2 fewer hospital days compared with control (25.5 v 28.7; P = .001). Remission rates and days to absolute neutrophil count recovery were similar in the two groups. No patients in the romyelocel-L plus G-CSF group died because of infection compared with two patients in the control arm. No graft-versus-host disease was observed.
    CONCLUSION: Subjects receiving romyelocel-L showed a decreased incidence of infections, antimicrobial use, and hospitalization, suggesting that romyelocel-L may provide a new option to reduce infections in patients with AML undergoing induction therapy.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.20.01739
  22. Nature. 2021 Jun 23.
    Clonal fitness inferred from time-series modelling of single-cell cancer genomes.
    Sohrab Salehi, Farhia Kabeer, Nicholas Ceglia, Mirela Andronescu, Marc J Williams, Kieran R Campbell, Tehmina Masud, Beixi Wang, Justina Biele, Jazmine Brimhall, David Gee, Hakwoo Lee, Jerome Ting, Allen W Zhang, Hoa Tran, Ciara O'Flanagan, Fatemeh Dorri, Nicole Rusk, Teresa Ruiz de Algara, So Ra Lee, Brian Yu Chieh Cheng, Peter Eirew, Takako Kono, Jenifer Pham, Diljot Grewal, Daniel Lai, Richard Moore, Andrew J Mungall, Marco A Marra, , Andrew McPherson, Alexandre Bouchard-Côté, Samuel Aparicio, Sohrab P Shah.
      Progress in defining genomic fitness landscapes in cancer, especially those defined by copy number alterations (CNAs), has been impeded by lack of time-series single-cell sampling of polyclonal populations and temporal statistical models1-7. Here we generated 42,000 genomes from multi-year time-series single-cell whole-genome sequencing of breast epithelium and primary triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) patient-derived xenografts (PDXs), revealing the nature of CNA-defined clonal fitness dynamics induced by TP53 mutation and cisplatin chemotherapy. Using a new Wright-Fisher population genetics model8,9 to infer clonal fitness, we found that TP53 mutation alters the fitness landscape, reproducibly distributing fitness over a larger number of clones associated with distinct CNAs. Furthermore, in TNBC PDX models with mutated TP53, inferred fitness coefficients from CNA-based genotypes accurately forecast experimentally enforced clonal competition dynamics. Drug treatment in three long-term serially passaged TNBC PDXs resulted in cisplatin-resistant clones emerging from low-fitness phylogenetic lineages in the untreated setting. Conversely, high-fitness clones from treatment-naive controls were eradicated, signalling an inversion of the fitness landscape. Finally, upon release of drug, selection pressure dynamics were reversed, indicating a fitness cost of treatment resistance. Together, our findings define clonal fitness linked to both CNA and therapeutic resistance in polyclonal tumours.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03648-3
  23. Blood. 2021 Jun 22. pii: blood.2019004260. [Epub ahead of print]
    Splicing factor mutations in hematologic malignancies.
    Sisi Chen, Salima Benbarche, Omar Abdel-Wahab.
      Mutations in genes encoding RNA splicing factors were discovered nearly ten years ago and are now understood to be amongst the most recurrent genetic abnormalities in patients with all forms of myeloid neoplasms and several types of lymphoproliferative disorders as well as subjects with clonal hematopoiesis. These discoveries implicate aberrant RNA splicing, the process by which precursor RNA is converted into mature messenger RNA, in the development of clonal hematopoietic conditions. Both the protein as well as the RNA components of the splicing machinery are affected by mutations at highly specific residues and a number of these mutations alter splicing in a manner distinct from loss of function. Importantly, cells bearing these mutations have now been shown to generate mRNA species with novel aberrant sequences, some of which may be critical to disease pathogenesis and/or novel targets for therapy. These findings have opened new avenues of research to understand biological pathways disrupted by altered splicing. In parallel, multiple studies have revealed that cells bearing change-of-function mutation in splicing factors are preferentially sensitized to any further genetic or chemical perturbations of the splicing machinery. These discoveries are now being pursued in several early phase clinical trials using molecules with diverse mechanisms of action. Here we review the molecular effects of splicing factor mutations on splicing, mechanisms by which these mutations drive clonal transformation of hematopoietic cells, and the development of new therapeutics targeting these genetic subsets of hematopoietic malignancies.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.2019004260
  24. Nat Chem Biol. 2021 Jul;17(7): 784-793
    Small-molecule inhibitors targeting Polycomb repressive complex 1 RING domain.
    Shirish Shukla, Weijiang Ying, Felicia Gray, Yiwu Yao, Miranda L Simes, Qingjie Zhao, Hongzhi Miao, Hyo Je Cho, Paula González-Alonso, Alyssa Winkler, George Lund, Trupta Purohit, EunGi Kim, Xiaotian Zhang, Joshua M Ray, Shihan He, Caroline Nikolaidis, Juliano Ndoj, Jingya Wang, Łukasz Jaremko, Mariusz Jaremko, Russell J H Ryan, Monica L Guzman, Jolanta Grembecka, Tomasz Cierpicki.
      Polycomb repressive complex 1 (PRC1) is an essential chromatin-modifying complex that monoubiquitinates histone H2A and is involved in maintaining the repressed chromatin state. Emerging evidence suggests PRC1 activity in various cancers, rationalizing the need for small-molecule inhibitors with well-defined mechanisms of action. Here, we describe the development of compounds that directly bind to RING1B-BMI1, the heterodimeric complex constituting the E3 ligase activity of PRC1. These compounds block the association of RING1B-BMI1 with chromatin and inhibit H2A ubiquitination. Structural studies demonstrate that these inhibitors bind to RING1B by inducing the formation of a hydrophobic pocket in the RING domain. Our PRC1 inhibitor, RB-3, decreases the global level of H2A ubiquitination and induces differentiation in leukemia cell lines and primary acute myeloid leukemia (AML) samples. In summary, we demonstrate that targeting the PRC1 RING domain with small molecules is feasible, and RB-3 represents a valuable chemical tool to study PRC1 biology.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41589-021-00815-5
  25. Br J Haematol. 2021 Jun 20.
    Eltrombopag for myelodysplastic syndromes or chronic myelomonocytic leukaemia with no excess blasts and thrombocytopenia: a French multicentre retrospective real-life study.
    Thibault Comont, Mathieu Meunier, Amina Cherait, Clemence Santana, Thomas Cluzeau, Bohrane Slama, Kamel Laribi, Jean-Thomas Giraud, Sophie Dimicoli, Ana Berceanu, Lenaïg Le Clech, Pascale Cony-Makhoul, Berangere Gruson, Jose Torregrosa, Laurence Sanhes, Vincent Jachiet, Marie-Agnes Azerad, Ahmad Al Jijakli, Emmanuel Gyan, Clement Gaudin, Jonathan Broner, Claire Guerveno, Thierry Guillaume, Pr Lionel Ades, Odile Beyne-Rauzy, Pierre Fenaux, .
      Despite a moderate prevalence in low-risk myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) and chronic myelomonocytic leukaemia (CMML), thrombocytopenia remains a risk of severe bleeding and therapeutic options are still limited. There are only a few studies with eltrombopag (ELT), a thrombopoietin receptor agonist, in those patients. In this retrospective multicentre study, ELT was used in 50 patients with MDS and 11 with CMML, with no excess of marrow blasts and platelet counts of <50 × 109 /l in a 'real-life' situation. Platelet response occurred in 47 (77%) patients. The median (range) duration of response was 8 (0-69) months. None of the eight still responders who discontinued ELT had relapsed, at a median (range) of 16 (6-23) months after ELT discontinuation. Although 36% of the patients were anti-coagulated or anti-aggregated only 10% of patients had Grade ≥3 bleeding events. Thrombotic events were observed in six (10%) patients, who all but one had a medical history of arterial or venous thrombosis. Progression to acute myeloid leukaemia occurred in four (7%) patients. In this first 'real-life' study, ELT was effective and generally well tolerated in patients with MDS/CMML without excess blasts.
    Keywords:  chronic myelomonocytic leukaemia; eltrombopag; myelodysplastic syndromes; real-life; thrombocytopenia
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1111/bjh.17539
  26. Cancer. 2021 Jun 23.
    Only SF3B1 mutation involving K700E independently predicts overall survival in myelodysplastic syndromes.
    Rashmi Kanagal-Shamanna, Guillermo Montalban-Bravo, Koji Sasaki, Faezeh Darbaniyan, Elias Jabbour, Carlos Bueso-Ramos, Yue Wei, Kelly Chien, Tapan Kadia, Farhad Ravandi, Gautam Borthakur, Kelly A Soltysiak, Mark Routbort, Keyur Patel, Sherry Pierce, L Jeffrey Medeiros, Hagop Kantarjian, Guillermo Garcia-Manero.
      BACKGROUND: SF3B1 mutations (SF3B1mut ) in myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) frequently involve codon K700E and have a favorable prognosis. The prognostic effect of non-K700E SF3B1mut is uncertain.METHODS: The authors analyzed the clinicopathological features and outcomes of a single-institution series of 94 treatment-naive SF3B1mut MDS patients (18%) and 415 treatment-naive SF3B1wt MDS patients and explored the differences between K700E and non-K700E SF3B1mut MDS.
    RESULTS: Fifty-five patients (59%) carried K700E. Recurrent non-K700E mutations (39 [41%]) included R625, H662, and K666. Compared with SF3B1mut K700E patients, non-K700E patients had a lower median absolute neutrophil count (1.8 vs 2.4; P = .005) and were frequently "high" according to the Revised International Prognostic Scoring System (19% vs 4%; P = .031). Non-K700E MDS was associated frequently with RUNX1 (26% vs 7%; P = .012) and exclusively with BCOR, IDH2, and SRSF2 mutations. A splicing analysis showed the differential distribution of alternatively spliced events and gene expression profiles between K700 and non-K700E MDS patients. The majority (at least 80%) of SF3B1mut K700E, SF3B1mut non-K700E, and SF3B1wt patients were treated with hypomethylating agents. Over a median follow-up of 16 months, SF3B1mut had superior overall survival (OS) in comparison with SF3B1wt in all MDS patients (not reached vs 25.2 months; P = .0003), in patients with low-grade MDS, and in patients with myelodysplastic syndromes with ring sideroblasts (MDS-RS). Compared with SF3B1wt , SF3B1mut K700E had superior outcomes in all MDS (median OS, 25 months vs not reached; P = .0001), in low-grade MDS (median OS, 41.3 months vs not reached; P = .0015), and in MDS-RS (median OS, 22.3 months vs not reached; P = .0001), but no significant difference was seen between non-K700E and SF3B1wt MDS. By multivariable analysis, the absence of SF3B1mut K700E mutations was independently associated with the prognosis.
    CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the importance of the SF3B1 mutation subtype in MDS risk assessment.
    LAY SUMMARY: Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) with SF3B1 mutations are regarded as having a favorable prognosis by both the World Health Organization and the International Working Group for the Prognosis of Myelodysplastic Syndromes. However, this article shows that only MDS patients with SF3B1 K700E mutations have a favorable prognosis (and not MDS patients with SF3B1 mutations involving other codons). This has important implications for refining future MDS subclassification and risk assessment criteria.
    Keywords:   SF3B1 ; K700E; myelodysplastic syndromes; prognosis; ring sideroblasts
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.33745
  27. Nature. 2021 Jun 23.
    Phase separation drives aberrant chromatin looping and cancer development.
    Jeong Hyun Ahn, Eric S Davis, Timothy A Daugird, Shuai Zhao, Ivana Yoseli Quiroga, Hidetaka Uryu, Jie Li, Aaron J Storey, Yi-Hsuan Tsai, Daniel P Keeley, Samuel G Mackintosh, Ricky D Edmondson, Stephanie D Byrum, Ling Cai, Alan J Tackett, Deyou Zheng, Wesley R Legant, Douglas H Phanstiel, Gang Greg Wang.
      The development of cancer is intimately associated with genetic abnormalities that target proteins with intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs). In human haematological malignancies, recurrent chromosomal translocation of nucleoporin (NUP98 or NUP214) generates an aberrant chimera that invariably retains the nucleoporin IDR-tandemly dispersed repeats of phenylalanine and glycine residues1,2. However, how unstructured IDRs contribute to oncogenesis remains unclear. Here we show that IDRs contained within NUP98-HOXA9, a homeodomain-containing transcription factor chimera recurrently detected in leukaemias1,2, are essential for establishing liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) puncta of chimera and for inducing leukaemic transformation. Notably, LLPS of NUP98-HOXA9 not only promotes chromatin occupancy of chimera transcription factors, but also is required for the formation of a broad 'super-enhancer'-like binding pattern typically seen at leukaemogenic genes, which potentiates transcriptional activation. An artificial HOX chimera, created by replacing the phenylalanine and glycine repeats of NUP98 with an unrelated LLPS-forming IDR of the FUS protein3,4, had similar enhancing effects on the genome-wide binding and target gene activation of the chimera. Deeply sequenced Hi-C revealed that phase-separated NUP98-HOXA9 induces CTCF-independent chromatin loops that are enriched at proto-oncogenes. Together, this report describes a proof-of-principle example in which cancer acquires mutation to establish oncogenic transcription factor condensates via phase separation, which simultaneously enhances their genomic targeting and induces organization of aberrant three-dimensional chromatin structure during tumourous transformation. As LLPS-competent molecules are frequently implicated in diseases1,2,4-7, this mechanism can potentially be generalized to many malignant and pathological settings.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03662-5
  28. Leukemia. 2021 Jun 25.
    Preclinical evaluation of eltrombopag in a PDX model of myelodysplastic syndromes.
    Nanni Schmitt, Johann-Christoph Jann, Eva Altrock, Johanna Flach, Justine Danner, Stefanie Uhlig, Alexander Streuer, Antje Knaflic, Vladimir Riabov, Qingyu Xu, Arwin Mehralivand, Iris Palme, Verena Nowak, Julia Obländer, Nadine Weimer, Verena Haselmann, Ahmed Jawhar, Ali Darwich, Cleo-Aron Weis, Alexander Marx, Laurenz Steiner, Mohamad Jawhar, Georgia Metzgeroth, Tobias Boch, Florian Nolte, Wolf-Karsten Hofmann, Daniel Nowak.
      Preclinical research of myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs) is hampered by a lack of feasible disease models. Previously, we have established a robust patient-derived xenograft (PDX) model for MDS. Here we demonstrate for the first time that this model is applicable as a preclinical platform to address pending clinical questions by interrogating the efficacy and safety of the thrombopoietin receptor agonist eltrombopag. Our preclinical study included n = 49 xenografts generated from n = 9 MDS patient samples. Substance efficacy was evidenced by FACS-based human platelet quantification and clonal bone marrow evolution was reconstructed by serial whole-exome sequencing of the PDX samples. In contrast to clinical trials in humans, this experimental setup allowed vehicle- and replicate-controlled analyses on a patient-individual level deciphering substance-specific effects from natural disease progression. We found that eltrombopag effectively stimulated thrombopoiesis in MDS PDX without adversely affecting the patients' clonal composition. In conclusion, our MDS PDX model is a useful tool for testing new therapeutic concepts in MDS preceding clinical trials.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41375-021-01327-w
  29. Blood Cancer Discov. 2021 May;2(3): 216-225
    Dissecting Clonal Hematopoiesis in Tissues of Classical Hodgkin Lymphoma Patients.
    Alessandra Venanzi, Andrea Marra, Gianluca Schiavoni, Sara G Milner, Roberto Limongello, Alessia Santi, Valentina Pettirossi, Simona Ultimo, Luisa Tasselli, Alessandra Pucciarini, Lorenza Falini, Sofia Sciabolacci, Maria Paola Martelli, Paolo Sportoletti, Stefano Ascani, Brunangelo Falini, Enrico Tiacci.
      Clonal hematopoiesis predisposes to hematological malignancies. However, clonal hematopoiesis is understudied in classical Hodgkin lymphoma (cHL), a mature B-cell neoplasm exhibiting the most abundant microenvironment. We analyzed clonal hematopoiesis in 40 cHL cases by sequencing microdissected tumor cells and matched normal cells from blood and/or lymph nodes. Five patients had blood and/or tissue clonal hematopoiesis. In three of five patients (all failing first-line therapy), clonal hematopoiesis spread through the tissue microenvironment extensively, and featured mutant DNMT3AR882H , KRASG60D and DNMT3AR882H +TET2Q1274 * in 33%, 92% and 60% of non-neoplastic cells, respectively. In the latter case, DNMT3A/TET2-mutant clonal hematopoiesis seeded the neoplastic clone, which was infected by the Epstein-Barr virus and showed almost no other somatic mutations exome-wide. In the former case, DNMT3A-mutant clonal hematopoiesis did not originate the neoplastic clone despite dominating the blood and B-cell lineage (~94% leukocytes; ~96% mature blood B cells), yet led to NPM1-mutated acute myeloid leukemia 6 years after therapy for cHL. Our results expand to cHL the spectrum of hematologic malignancies associated with clonal hematopoiesis.
    Keywords:  Acute myeloid leukemia; Clonal hematopoiesis; DNMT3A; Hodgkin lymphoma; Microenvironment; NPM1
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1158/2643-3230.BCD-20-0203
  30. Cancer Cell. 2021 Jun 19. pii: S1535-6108(21)00321-4. [Epub ahead of print]
    Stepwise evolution of therapy resistance in AML.
    Philippe Gui, Trever G Bivona.
      Relapse of AML patients to FLT3i treatment is the result of a long-term and stepwise process leading to resistance, whereby residual cancer cells initially survive and subsequently expand. Here, Joshi et al. use a multifaceted approach to characterize how microenvironment-driven early resistance to gilteritinib evolves into mutation-driven late resistance.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2021.06.004
  31. Int J Hematol. 2021 Jun 24.
    MPL overexpression induces a high level of mutant-CALR/MPL complex: a novel mechanism of ruxolitinib resistance in myeloproliferative neoplasms with CALR mutations.
    Shunichiro Yasuda, Satoru Aoyama, Ryoto Yoshimoto, Huixin Li, Daisuke Watanabe, Hiroki Akiyama, Kouhei Yamamoto, Takeo Fujiwara, Yuho Najima, Noriko Doki, Emiko Sakaida, Yoko Edahiro, Misa Imai, Marito Araki, Norio Komatsu, Osamu Miura, Norihiko Kawamata.
      Ruxolitinib (RUX), a JAK1/2-inhibitor, is effective for myeloproliferative neoplasm (MPN) with both JAK2V617 F and calreticulin (CALR) mutations. However, many MPN patients develop resistance to RUX. Although mechanisms of RUX-resistance in cells with JAK2V617 F have already been characterized, those in cells with CALR mutations remain to be elucidated. In this study, we established RUX-resistant human cell lines with CALR mutations and characterized mechanisms of RUX-resistance. Here, we found that RUX-resistant cells had high levels of MPL transcripts, overexpression of both MPL and JAK2, and increased phosphorylation of JAK2 and STAT5. We also found that mature MPL proteins were more stable in RUX-resistant cells. Knockdown of MPL in RUX-resistant cells by shRNAs decreased JAK/STAT signaling. Immunoprecipitation assays showed that binding of mutant CALR to MPL was increased in RUX-resistant cells. Reduction of mutated CALR decreased proliferation of the resistant cells. When resistant cells were cultured in the absence of RUX, the RUX-resistance was reversed, with reduction of the mutant-CALR/MPL complex. In conclusion, MPL overexpression induces higher levels of a mutant-CALR/MPL complex, which may cause RUX-resistance in cells with CALR mutations. This mechanism may be a new therapeutic target to overcome RUX-resistance.
    Keywords:  CRISPR/Cas9; Calreticulin mutation; Myeloproliferative neoplasms; Ruxolitinib; Thrombopoietin receptor
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12185-021-03180-0
  32. Blood Adv. 2021 06 22. 5(12): 2650-2659
    Posttransplant cyclophosphamide as GVHD prophylaxis for peripheral blood stem cell HLA-mismatched unrelated donor transplant.
    Monzr M Al Malki, Ni-Chun Tsai, Joycelynne Palmer, Sally Mokhtari, Weimin Tsai, Thai Cao, Haris Ali, Amandeep Salhotra, Shukaib Arslan, Ibrahim Aldoss, Nicole Karras, Chatchada Karanes, Jasmine Zain, Samer Khaled, Anthony Stein, David Snyder, Guido Marcucci, Stephen J Forman, Ryotaro Nakamura.
      Efficacy of PTCy after mismatched unrelated donor (MMUD) HCT is unknown. In this pilot clinical trial, we enrolled 38 patients with hematologic malignancies scheduled to undergo MMUD-HCT (≥6/8 HLA-matched donors) onto 1 of 2 conditioning strata: myeloablative using fludarabine and fractionated total body irradiation (n = 19) or reduced intensity with fludarabine/melphalan (n = 19). Graft source was peripheral blood stem cells (PBSCs), and GVHD prophylaxis was PTCy, tacrolimus, and mycophenolate mofetil. Patients' median age was 53 years (range, 21-72 years). Median number of HLA mismatches was 2 (range, 1-4) of 12 loci. Twenty-three patients (61%) were considered racial (n = 12) or ethnic (n = 11) minorities. Median time to neutrophil engraftment was 16 days (range, 13-35 days). With a median follow-up of 18.3 months (range, 4.3-25.0 months) for surviving patients, 1-year overall survival (OS) and GVHD-free/relapse-free survival (GRFS) were 87% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 71-94) and 68% (95% CI: 51-81), respectively. Cumulative incidence of nonrelapse mortality at 100 days and 1 year were 0% and 11% (95% CI: 4-27), respectively, whereas relapse/progression was 11% (95% CI: 4-27). Cumulative incidence of 100-day acute GVHD grades 2-4 and 3-4 and 1-year chronic GVHD were 50% (95% CI: 36-69), 18% (95% CI: 9-36), and 48% (95% CI: 34-68), respectively. The rate of moderate/severe chronic GVHD was 3% in the entire cohort. We showed highly promising OS/GRFS rates with an acceptable risk profile after PBSC-MMUD-HCT with PTCy. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT03128359.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1182/bloodadvances.2021004192
  33. Blood. 2021 Jun 24. pii: blood.2021010815. [Epub ahead of print]
    Incidence and Prognosis of Clonal Hematopoiesis in patients with Chronic Idiopathic Neutropenia.
    Grigorios Tsaknakis, Anna Galli, Stavros Papadakis, Peggy Mary Kanellou, Chiara Elena, Gabriele Todisco, Elisa Bono, Ettore Rizzo, Elisabetta Molteni, Irene Fragiadaki, Irene Mavroudi, Charalampos Pontikoglou, Anastasios Batas, Stella Maxouri, Emmanouela Linardaki, Nektarios Tavernarakis, Luca Malcovati, Helen A Papadaki.
      The incidence and prognosis of clonal hematopoiesis in patients with isolated neutropenia among patients with idiopathic cytopenia of undetermined significance (ICUS), known as ICUS-N or chronic idiopathic neutropenia (CIN) patients, is poorly defined. In the present study we sought to investigate the frequency and clinical significance of mutations of genes implicated in myeloid malignancies using next generation sequencing, in CIN patients (n=185) with a long follow-up. We found that 21/185 patients (11.35%) carried totally 25 somatic mutations in 6 genes with median variant allele frequency (VAF) 12.75%. The most frequently mutated genes were DNMT3A and TET2 involving more than 80% of patients followed by IDH1/2, SRSF2 and ZRSR2. The frequency of transformation to a myeloid malignancy was low in the total group of patients (5/185 patients; 2.70%). However, from the transformed patients four belonged to the clonal (4/21; 19.05%) and one to the non-clonal (1/164; 0.61%) group, indicating that the presence of mutation(s) confers a relative risk for transformation 31.24 (P = 0.0017). The VAF of the mutant clones in the transformed patients was higher than 10% in all cases and the genes most frequently associated with malignant transformation were the SRSF2 and IDH1. No significant differences were identified between clonal and non-clonal groups in the severity of neutropenia. Patients with clonal disease were older compared to non-clonal patients. These data contribute to the better understanding of the heterogeneous entities underlying ICUS and highlight the importance of the mutation analysis for the diagnosis and prognosis of patients with unexplained neutropenias.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.2021010815
  34. Lancet Haematol. 2021 Jul;pii: S2352-3026(21)00134-4. [Epub ahead of print]8(7): e481-e491
    CPX-351 versus 7+3 cytarabine and daunorubicin chemotherapy in older adults with newly diagnosed high-risk or secondary acute myeloid leukaemia: 5-year results of a randomised, open-label, multicentre, phase 3 trial.
    Jeffrey E Lancet, Geoffrey L Uy, Laura F Newell, Tara L Lin, Ellen K Ritchie, Robert K Stuart, Stephen A Strickland, Donna Hogge, Scott R Solomon, Dale L Bixby, Jonathan E Kolitz, Gary J Schiller, Matthew J Wieduwilt, Daniel H Ryan, Stefan Faderl, Jorge E Cortes.
      BACKGROUND: Daunorubicin and cytarabine are used as standard induction chemotherapy for patients with acute myeloid leukaemia. CPX-351 is a dual-drug liposomal encapsulation of daunorubicin and cytarabine in a synergistic 1:5 molar ratio. Primary analysis of the phase 3 trial in adults aged 60-75 years with newly diagnosed high-risk or secondary acute myeloid leukaemia provided support for approval of CPX-351 by the US Food and Drug Administration and European Medicines Agency. We describe the prospectively planned final 5-year follow-up results.METHODS: This randomised, open-label, multicentre, phase 3 trial was done across 39 academic and regional cancer centres in the USA and Canada. Eligible patients were aged 60-75 years and had a pathological diagnosis of acute myeloid leukaemia according to WHO 2008 criteria, no previous induction therapy for acute myeloid leukaemia, and an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status of 0-2. Patients were randomly assigned 1:1 (stratified by age and acute myeloid leukaemia subtype) to receive up to two induction cycles of CPX-351 (100 units/m2 administered as a 90-min intravenous infusion on days 1, 3, and 5; on days 1 and 3 for the second induction) or standard chemotherapy (cytarabine 100 mg/m2 per day continuous intravenous infusion for 7 days plus intravenous daunorubicin 60 mg/m2 on days 1, 2, and 3 [7+3]; cytarabine for 5 days and daunorubicin on days 1 and 2 for the second induction [5+2]). Patients with complete remission or complete remission with incomplete neutrophil or platelet recovery could receive up to tw cycles of consolidation therapy with CPX-351 (65 units/m2 90-min infusion on days 1 and 3) or chemotherapy (5+2, same dosage as in the second induction cycle). The primary outcome was overall survival analysed in all randomly assigned patients. No additional adverse events were collected with long-term follow-up, except data for deaths. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT01696084, and is complete.
    FINDINGS: Between Dec 20, 2012, and Nov 11, 2014, 309 patients with newly diagnosed high-risk or secondary acute myeloid leukaemia were enrolled and randomly assigned to receive CPX-351 (153 patients) or 7+3 (156 patients). At a median follow-up of 60·91 months (IQR 60·06-62·98) in the CPX-351 group and 59·93 months (59·73-60·50) in the 7+3 group, median overall survival was 9·33 months (95% CI 6·37-11·86) with CPX-351 and 5·95 months (4·99-7·75) with 7+3 (HR 0·70, 95% CI 0·55-0·91). 5-year overall survival was 18% (95% CI 12-25%) in the CPX-351 group and 8% (4-13%) in the 7+3 group. The most common cause of death in both groups was progressive leukaemia (70 [56%] of 124 deaths in the CPX-351 group and 74 [53%] of 140 deaths in the 7+3 group). Six (5%) of 124 deaths in the CPX-351 group and seven (5%) of 140 deaths in the 7+3 group were considered related to study treatment.
    INTERPRETATION: After 5 years of follow-up, the improved overall survival with CPX-351 versus 7+3 was maintained, which supports the previous evidence that CPX-351 can contribute to long-term remission and improved overall survival in patients aged 60-75 years with newly diagnosed high-risk or secondary acute myeloid leukaemia.
    FUNDING: Jazz Pharmaceuticals.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3026(21)00134-4
  35. Nat Genet. 2021 Jun 21.
    The HIF complex recruits the histone methyltransferase SET1B to activate specific hypoxia-inducible genes.
    Brian M Ortmann, Natalie Burrows, Ian T Lobb, Esther Arnaiz, Niek Wit, Peter S J Bailey, Louise H Jordon, Olivia Lombardi, Ana Peñalver, James McCaffrey, Rachel Seear, David R Mole, Peter J Ratcliffe, Patrick H Maxwell, James A Nathan.
      Hypoxia-inducible transcription factors (HIFs) are fundamental to cellular adaptation to low oxygen levels, but it is unclear how they interact with chromatin and activate their target genes. Here, we use genome-wide mutagenesis to identify genes involved in HIF transcriptional activity, and define a requirement for the histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4) methyltransferase SET1B. SET1B loss leads to a selective reduction in transcriptional activation of HIF target genes, resulting in impaired cell growth, angiogenesis and tumor establishment in SET1B-deficient xenografts. Mechanistically, we show that SET1B accumulates on chromatin in hypoxia, and is recruited to HIF target genes by the HIF complex. The selective induction of H3K4 trimethylation at HIF target loci is both HIF- and SET1B-dependent and, when impaired, correlates with decreased promoter acetylation and gene expression. Together, these findings show SET1B as a determinant of site-specific histone methylation and provide insight into how HIF target genes are differentially regulated.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-021-00887-y
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