bims-instec Biomed News
on Intestinal stem cells and chemoresistance in colon cancer and intestinal regeneration
Issue of 2022‒01‒16
thirteen papers selected by
Maria-Virginia Giolito
IRFAC/UMR-S1113 INSERM
  1. CDC42 controlled apical-basal polarity regulates intestinal stem cell to transit amplifying cell fate transition via YAP-EGF-mTOR signaling.
  2. Zinc finger protein 277 is an intestinal transit-amplifying cell marker and colon cancer oncogene.
  3. TIMP-2 regulates 5-Fu resistance via the ERK/MAPK signaling pathway in colorectal cancer.
  4. Mechanisms modulating the activities of intestinal stem cells upon radiation or chemical agent exposure.
  5. The transcription factor hepatocyte nuclear factor 4A acts in the intestine to promote white adipose tissue energy storage.
  6. Quiescent human glioblastoma cancer stem cells drive tumor initiation, expansion, and recurrence following chemotherapy.
  7. Adaptive differentiation promotes intestinal villus recovery.
  8. LATS1 exerts tumor suppressor functions via targeting Gli1 in colorectal cancer.
  9. Paneth cells and their multiple functions.
  10. ROS/PI3K/Akt and Wnt/β-catenin signalings activate HIF-1α-induced metabolic reprogramming to impart 5-fluorouracil resistance in colorectal cancer.
  11. Robust differentiation of human enteroendocrine cells from intestinal stem cells.
  12. Alteration of ribosome function upon 5-fluorouracil treatment favors cancer cell drug-tolerance.
  13. Towards targeting of shared mechanisms of cancer metastasis and therapy resistance.
  1. Cell Rep. 2022 Jan 11. pii: S2211-1247(21)01487-X. [Epub ahead of print]38(2): 110009
    CDC42 controlled apical-basal polarity regulates intestinal stem cell to transit amplifying cell fate transition via YAP-EGF-mTOR signaling.
    Zheng Zhang, Feng Zhang, Ashley Kuenzi Davis, Mei Xin, Gerd Walz, Weidong Tian, Yi Zheng.
      Epithelial polarity is controlled by a polarity machinery that includes Rho GTPase CDC42 and Scribble/PAR. By using intestinal stem cell (ISC)-specific deletion of CDC42 in olfactomedin-4 (Olfm4)-internal ribosome entry site (IRES)-EGFP/CreERT2;CDC42flox/flox mice, we find that CDC42 loss initiated in the ISCs causes a drastic hyperproliferation of transit amplifying (TA) cells and disrupts epithelial polarity. CDC42-null crypts display expanded TA cell and diminished ISC populations, accompanied by elevated Hippo signaling via YAP/TAZ-Ereg (yes-associated protein/WW domain-containing transcription regulator protein 1-epiregulin) and mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) activation, independent from canonical Wnt signaling. YAP/TAZ conditional knockout (KO) restores the balance of ISC/TA cell populations and crypt proliferation but does not rescue the polarity in CDC42-null small intestine. mTOR or epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitor treatment of CDC42 KO mice exhibits similar rescuing effects without affecting YAP/TAZ signaling. Inducible ablation of Scribble in intestinal epithelial cells mimics that of CDC42 KO defects, including crypt hyperplasia and Hippo signaling activation. Mammalian epithelial polarity regulates ISC/TA cell fate and proliferation via a Hippo-Ereg-mTOR cascade.
    Keywords:  Cdc42; Hippo signaling; cell fate; intestinal stem cells; mTOR signaling; mouse model; polarity
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2021.110009
  2. JCI Insight. 2022 Jan 11. pii: e150894. [Epub ahead of print]
    Zinc finger protein 277 is an intestinal transit-amplifying cell marker and colon cancer oncogene.
    Guofeng Xie, Zhongsheng Peng, Jinqing Liang, Shannon M Larabee, Cinthia B Drachenberg, Harris Yfantis, Jean-Pierre Raufman.
      Sustained proliferative signaling and resisting cell death are hallmarks of cancer. Zinc finger protein 277 (ZNF277; murine Zfp277), a transcription factor regulating cellular senescence, is overexpressed in colon cancer but its actions in intestinal homeostasis and neoplasia are unclear. Using human and murine intestine, human colon cancer cells, and ApcMin/+ mice with dysregulated β-catenin signaling and exuberant intestinal neoplasia, we explored the actions of ZNF/Zfp277 and defined the underlying mechanisms. In normal human and murine intestine, ZNF/Zfp277 was expressed uniquely in early stem cell progenitors, undifferentiated transit-amplifying cells (TACs). Zfp277 was overexpressed in the ApcMin/+ mouse colon, implicating ZNF/Zfp277 as a transcriptional target of β-catenin signaling. We confirmed this by showing β-catenin knockdown reduced ZNF277 expression and, using chromatin immunoprecipitation, identified two β-catenin binding sites in the ZNF277 promoter. Zfp277 deficiency attenuated intestinal epithelial cell proliferation and tumor formation, and strikingly prolonged ApcMin/+ mouse survival. RNA-Seq and PCR analyses revealed Zfp277 modulates expression of genes in key cancer pathways including β-catenin signaling, the HOXD family that regulates development, and p21WAF1, a cell cycle inhibitor and tumor suppressor. In both human colon cancer cells and the murine colon, ZNF/Zfp277 deficiency induced p21WAF1 expression and promoted senescence. Our findings identify ZNF/Zfp277 as both a TAC marker and colon cancer oncogene that regulates cellular proliferation and senescence, in part by repressing p21WAF1 expression.
    Keywords:  Cellular senescence; Colorectal cancer; Gastroenterology; Oncology
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.150894
  3. Aging (Albany NY). 2022 Jan 12. 13(undefined):
    TIMP-2 regulates 5-Fu resistance via the ERK/MAPK signaling pathway in colorectal cancer.
    Guolin Zhang, Xin Luo, Zian Wang, Jianbin Xu, Wei Zhang, Engeng Chen, Qing Meng, Di Wang, Xuefeng Huang, Wei Zhou, Zhangfa Song.
      5-Fluorouracil (5-Fu) is the first-line chemotherapeutic option for colorectal cancer. However, its efficacy is inhibited by drug resistance. Cytokines play an important role in tumor drug resistance, even though their mechanisms are largely unknown. Using a cytokine array, we established that tissue inhibitor metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP-2) is highly expressed in 5-Fu resistant colorectal cancer patients. Analysis of samples from 84 patients showed that elevated TIMP-2 expression levels in colorectal patients were correlated with poor prognostic outcomes. In a 5-Fu-resistant patient-derived xenograft (PDX) model, TIMP-2 was also found to be highly expressed. We established an autocrine mechanism through which elevated TIMP-2 protein levels sustained colorectal cancer cell resistance to 5-Fu by constitutively activating the ERK/MAPK signaling pathway. Inhibition of TIMP-2 using an anti-TIMP-2 antibody or ERK/MAPK inhibition by U0126 suppressed TIMP-2 mediated 5-Fu-resistance in CRC patients. In conclusion, a novel TIMP-2-ERK/MAPK mediated 5-Fu resistance mechanism is involved in colorectal cancer. Therefore, targeting TIMP-2 or ERK/MAPK may provide a new strategy to overcome 5-Fu resistance in colorectal cancer chemotherapy.
    Keywords:  5-Fu; ERK/MAPK signaling pathway; TIMP-2; colorectal cancer; drug resistance
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.18632/aging.203793
  4. J Radiat Res. 2022 Jan 10. pii: rrab124. [Epub ahead of print]
    Mechanisms modulating the activities of intestinal stem cells upon radiation or chemical agent exposure.
    Zebin Liao, Changkun Hu, Yue Gao.
      Intestinal stem cells (ISCs) are essential for the regeneration of intestinal cells upon radiation or chemical agent damage. As for radiation-induced damage, the expression of AIM2, YAP, TLR3, PUMA or BVES can aggravate ISCs depletion, while the stimulation of TLR5, HGF/MET signaling, Ass1 gene, Slit/Robo signaling facilitate the radio-resistance of ISCs. Upon chemical agent treatment, the activation of TRAIL or p53/PUMA pathway exacerbate injury on ISCs, while the increased levels of IL-22, β-arrestin1 can ease the damage. The transformation between reserve ISCs (rISCs) maintaining quiescent states and active ISCs (aISCs) that are highly proliferative has obtained much attention in recent years, in which ISCs expressing high levels of Hopx, Bmi1, mTert, Krt19 or Lrig1 are resistant to radiation injury, and SOX9, MSI2, clusterin, URI are essential for rISCs maintenance. The differentiated cells like Paneth cells and enteroendocrine cells can also obtain stemness driven by radiation injury mediated by Wnt or Notch signaling. Besides, Mex3a-expressed ISCs can survive and then proliferate into intestinal epithelial cells upon chemical agent damage. In addition, the modulation of symbiotic microbes harboring gastrointestinal (GI) tract is also a promising strategy to protect ISCs against radiation damage. Overall, the strategies targeting mechanisms modulating ISCs activities are conducive to alleviating GI injury of patients receiving chemoradiotherapy or victims of nuclear or chemical accident.
    Keywords:  ISCs transformation; chemical agent damage; gut microbiota balance; intestinal stem cells (ISCs); radiation damage
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1093/jrr/rrab124
  5. Nat Commun. 2022 Jan 11. 13(1): 224
    The transcription factor hepatocyte nuclear factor 4A acts in the intestine to promote white adipose tissue energy storage.
    Romain Girard, Sarah Tremblay, Christophe Noll, Stéphanie St-Jean, Christine Jones, Yves Gélinas, Faïza Maloum-Rami, Nathalie Perreault, Mathieu Laplante, André C Carpentier, François Boudreau.
      The transcription factor hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 A (HNF4A) controls the metabolic features of several endodermal epithelia. Both HNF4A and HNF4G are redundant in the intestine and it remains unclear whether HNF4A alone controls intestinal lipid metabolism. Here we show that intestinal HNF4A is not required for intestinal lipid metabolism per se, but unexpectedly influences whole-body energy expenditure in diet-induced obesity (DIO). Deletion of intestinal HNF4A caused mice to become DIO-resistant with a preference for fat as an energy substrate and energetic changes in association with white adipose tissue (WAT) beiging. Intestinal HNF4A is crucial for the fat-induced release of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), while the reintroduction of a stabilized GIP analog rescues the DIO resistance phenotype of the mutant mice. Our study provides evidence that intestinal HNF4A plays a non-redundant role in whole-body lipid homeostasis and points to a non-cell-autonomous regulatory circuit for body-fat management.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27934-w
  6. Dev Cell. 2022 Jan 10. pii: S1534-5807(21)00996-5. [Epub ahead of print]57(1): 32-46.e8
    Quiescent human glioblastoma cancer stem cells drive tumor initiation, expansion, and recurrence following chemotherapy.
    Xuanhua P Xie, Dan R Laks, Daochun Sun, Mungunsarnai Ganbold, Zilai Wang, Alicia M Pedraza, Tejus Bale, Viviane Tabar, Cameron Brennan, Xiuping Zhou, Luis F Parada.
      We test the hypothesis that glioblastoma harbors quiescent cancer stem cells that evade anti-proliferative therapies. Functional characterization of spontaneous glioblastomas from genetically engineered mice reveals essential quiescent stem-like cells that can be directly isolated from tumors. A derived quiescent cancer-stem-cell-specific gene expression signature is enriched in pre-formed patient GBM xenograft single-cell clusters that lack proliferative gene expression. A refined human 118-gene signature is preserved in quiescent single-cell populations from primary and recurrent human glioblastomas. The F3 cell-surface receptor mRNA, expressed in the conserved signature, identifies quiescent tumor cells by antibody immunohistochemistry. F3-antibody-sorted glioblastoma cells exhibit stem cell gene expression, enhance self-renewal in culture, drive tumor initiation and serial transplantation, and reconstitute tumor heterogeneity. Upon chemotherapy, the spared cancer stem cell pool becomes activated and accelerates transition to proliferation. These results help explain conventional treatment failure and lay a conceptual framework for alternative therapies.
    Keywords:  F3 receptor; cancer stem cells; chemoresistance; glioblastoma; heterogeneity; quiescence; recurrence; single-cell RNA sequencing; temozolomide
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.devcel.2021.12.007
  7. Dev Cell. 2022 Jan 03. pii: S1534-5807(21)01032-7. [Epub ahead of print]
    Adaptive differentiation promotes intestinal villus recovery.
    Takahiro E Ohara, Marco Colonna, Thaddeus S Stappenbeck.
      Loss of differentiated cells to tissue damage is a hallmark of many diseases. In slow-turnover tissues, long-lived differentiated cells can re-enter the cell cycle or transdifferentiate to another cell type to promote repair. Here, we show that in a high-turnover tissue, severe damage to the differentiated compartment induces progenitors to transiently acquire a unique transcriptional and morphological postmitotic state. We highlight this in an acute villus injury model in the mouse intestine, where we identified a population of progenitor-derived cells that covered injured villi. These atrophy-induced villus epithelial cells (aVECs) were enriched for fetal markers but were differentiated and lineage committed. We further established a role for aVECs in maintaining barrier integrity through the activation of yes-associated protein (YAP). Notably, loss of YAP activity led to impaired villus regeneration. Thus, we define a key repair mechanism involving the activation of a fetal-like program during injury-induced differentiation, a process we term "adaptive differentiation."
    Keywords:  Hippo; YAP; adaptive differentiation; enteropathy; injury-repair; intestine; poly(I:C); regeneration; single-cell RNA sequencing; villus atrophy
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.devcel.2021.12.012
  8. J Cancer. 2021 ;12(24): 7311-7319
    LATS1 exerts tumor suppressor functions via targeting Gli1 in colorectal cancer.
    Zhengchao Shen, Yingying Pan, Peng Chen, Bin Jiang, Xiaosan Fang, Yaqi Jiang.
      Background: The Hippo pathway's primary kinase component, large tumor suppressor 1 (LATS1), has been hypothesized as a tumor suppressor in a variety of cancers. LATS1's biological effects on colorectal cancer (CRC) are yet to be determined. Methods: The analysis of LATS1 mRNA expression in CRC was conducted using public databases from the Gene Expressing Profiling Interactive Analysis database (GEPIA). Investigation for the expression of LATS1 protein in 102 CRC tumor tissues and 57 normal tissues was performed using immunohistochemistry (IHC) analysis. In vitro genetic manipulation was used to explore the potential role and mechanism of LATS1 in the regulation of proliferation and migration of CRC cells. Results: LATS1 was found to be considerably downregulated in CRC tissues, with much lower levels in individuals with bigger tumors of size (≥5 cm), deeper invasion (T3-4), positive lymph node metastasis (LNM), and advanced tumor-node-metastasis (TNM) stage (III-IV). As exhibited by clinical data analysis, LATS1 loss was significantly associated with TNM and LNM staging in CRC patients. Furthermore, our in vitro investigations revealed that LATS1 depletion increased CRC cell proliferation and migration in HCT116 cells, whereas overexpressing LATS1 had the opposite effect in SW620 cells. LATS1 suppressed the expression of glioma-associated oncogene-1 (Gli1), and LATS1's tumor-suppressive actions in CRC are dependent on Gli1. Moreover, LATS1 could modulate Yes-associated protein 1 (YAP1) expression and mTOR activation in CRC cells. Conclusion: Our findings identify the LATS1 as a unique Gli1 regulator in CRC cell migration and proliferation, and suggest that LATS1 may serve as a potential therapeutic target for CRC.
    Keywords:  Gli1; LATS1; colorectal cancer; migration; proliferation
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.7150/jca.62211
  9. Cell Biol Int. 2022 Jan 15.
    Paneth cells and their multiple functions.
    Laylla Barreto E Barreto, Isadora Campos Rattes, Aline Vasques da Costa, Patrícia Gama.
      The small intestine mucosa is lined by specialized cells that form the crypt-villus axis, which expands its surface. Among the six intestinal epithelial cell types, the Paneth cell is located at the base of the crypt, and it contains numerous granules in its cytoplasm, composed of antimicrobial peptides, such as defensins and lysozyme, and growth factors, such as EGF, TGF-alpha, and Wnt ligands. Together, these elements act in the defense against microorganisms, regulation of intestinal microbiota, maintenance, and regulation of stem cell identity. Pathologies that target Paneth cells can disturb such defense activity, but they also affect the maintenance of stem cell niche. In that way, Crohn's disease, necrotizing enterocolitis, and graft-versus-host disease promote a reduction of Paneth cell population, and consequently of secretion of their products into the lumen of the crypts, making the affected organism predisposed to infections and dysbiosis. Additionally, the emergence of new intestinal cells is also decreased. This review aims to address the main characteristics of Paneth cells, highlighting their multiple functions and the importance of their preservation to ensure bowel homeostasis. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
    Keywords:  cell cycle; cell differentiation; growth factors; stem cells
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/cbin.11764
  10. J Exp Clin Cancer Res. 2022 Jan 08. 41(1): 15
    ROS/PI3K/Akt and Wnt/β-catenin signalings activate HIF-1α-induced metabolic reprogramming to impart 5-fluorouracil resistance in colorectal cancer.
    Shuohui Dong, Shuo Liang, Zhiqiang Cheng, Xiang Zhang, Li Luo, Linchuan Li, Wenjie Zhang, Songhan Li, Qian Xu, Mingwei Zhong, Jiankang Zhu, Guangyong Zhang, Sanyuan Hu.
      BACKGROUND: Acquired resistance of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) remains a clinical challenge in colorectal cancer (CRC), and efforts to develop targeted agents to reduce resistance have not yielded success. Metabolic reprogramming is a key cancer hallmark and confers several tumor phenotypes including chemoresistance. Glucose metabolic reprogramming events of 5-FU resistance in CRC has not been evaluated, and whether abnormal glucose metabolism could impart 5-FU resistance in CRC is also poorly defined.METHODS: Three separate acquired 5-FU resistance CRC cell line models were generated, and glucose metabolism was assessed by measuring glucose and lactate utilization, RNA and protein expressions of glucose metabolism-related enzymes and changes of intermediate metabolites of glucose metabolite pool. The protein levels of hypoxia inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) in primary tumors and circulating tumor cells of CRC patients were detected by immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. Stable HIF1A knockdown in cell models was established with a lentiviral system. The influence of both HIF1A gene knockdown and pharmacological inhibition on 5-FU resistance in CRC was evaluated in cell models in vivo and in vitro.
    RESULTS: The abnormality of glucose metabolism in 5-FU-resistant CRC were described in detail. The enhanced glycolysis and pentose phosphate pathway in CRC were associated with increased HIF-1α expression. HIF-1α-induced glucose metabolic reprogramming imparted 5-FU resistance in CRC. HIF-1α showed enhanced expression in 5-FU-resistant CRC cell lines and clinical specimens, and increased HIF-1α levels were associated with failure of fluorouracil analog-based chemotherapy in CRC patients and poor survival. Upregulation of HIF-1α in 5-FU-resistant CRC occurred through non-oxygen-dependent mechanisms of reactive oxygen species-mediated activation of PI3K/Akt signaling and aberrant activation of β-catenin in the nucleus. Both HIF-1α gene knock-down and pharmacological inhibition restored the sensitivity of CRC to 5-FU.
    CONCLUSIONS: HIF-1α is a potential biomarker for 5-FU-resistant CRC, and targeting HIF-1a in combination with 5-FU may represent an effective therapeutic strategy in 5-FU-resistant CRC.
    Keywords:  5-fluorouracil; Chemoresistance; Colorectal; Glycolysis; HIF-1α; Metabolic reprogramming; Prognostic biomarker; Reactive oxygen species; β-Catenin
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1186/s13046-021-02229-6
  11. Nat Commun. 2022 Jan 11. 13(1): 261
    Robust differentiation of human enteroendocrine cells from intestinal stem cells.
    Daniel Zeve, Eric Stas, Joshua de Sousa Casal, Prabhath Mannam, Wanshu Qi, Xiaolei Yin, Sarah Dubois, Manasvi S Shah, Erin P Syverson, Sophie Hafner, Jeffrey M Karp, Diana L Carlone, Jose Ordovas-Montanes, David T Breault.
      Enteroendocrine (EE) cells are the most abundant hormone-producing cells in humans and are critical regulators of energy homeostasis and gastrointestinal function. Challenges in converting human intestinal stem cells (ISCs) into functional EE cells, ex vivo, have limited progress in elucidating their role in disease pathogenesis and in harnessing their therapeutic potential. To address this, we employed small molecule targeting of the endocannabinoid receptor signaling pathway, JNK, and FOXO1, known to mediate endodermal development and/or hormone production, together with directed differentiation of human ISCs from the duodenum and rectum. We observed marked induction of EE cell differentiation and gut-derived expression and secretion of SST, 5HT, GIP, CCK, GLP-1 and PYY upon treatment with various combinations of three small molecules: rimonabant, SP600125 and AS1842856. Robust differentiation strategies capable of driving human EE cell differentiation is a critical step towards understanding these essential cells and the development of cell-based therapeutics.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27901-5
  12. Nat Commun. 2022 Jan 10. 13(1): 173
    Alteration of ribosome function upon 5-fluorouracil treatment favors cancer cell drug-tolerance.
    Gabriel Therizols, Zeina Bash-Imam, Baptiste Panthu, Christelle Machon, Anne Vincent, Julie Ripoll, Sophie Nait-Slimane, Mounira Chalabi-Dchar, Angéline Gaucherot, Maxime Garcia, Florian Laforêts, Virginie Marcel, Jihane Boubaker-Vitre, Marie-Ambre Monet, Céline Bouclier, Christophe Vanbelle, Guillaume Souahlia, Elise Berthel, Marie Alexandra Albaret, Hichem C Mertani, Michel Prudhomme, Martin Bertrand, Alexandre David, Jean-Christophe Saurin, Philippe Bouvet, Eric Rivals, Théophile Ohlmann, Jérôme Guitton, Nicole Dalla Venezia, Julie Pannequin, Frédéric Catez, Jean-Jacques Diaz.
      Mechanisms of drug-tolerance remain poorly understood and have been linked to genomic but also to non-genomic processes. 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), the most widely used chemotherapy in oncology is associated with resistance. While prescribed as an inhibitor of DNA replication, 5-FU alters all RNA pathways. Here, we show that 5-FU treatment leads to the production of fluorinated ribosomes exhibiting altered translational activities. 5-FU is incorporated into ribosomal RNAs of mature ribosomes in cancer cell lines, colorectal xenografts, and human tumors. Fluorinated ribosomes appear to be functional, yet, they display a selective translational activity towards mRNAs depending on the nature of their 5'-untranslated region. As a result, we find that sustained translation of IGF-1R mRNA, which encodes one of the most potent cell survival effectors, promotes the survival of 5-FU-treated colorectal cancer cells. Altogether, our results demonstrate that "man-made" fluorinated ribosomes favor the drug-tolerant cellular phenotype by promoting translation of survival genes.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27847-8
  13. Nat Rev Cancer. 2022 Jan 10.
    Towards targeting of shared mechanisms of cancer metastasis and therapy resistance.
    Felix Weiss, Douglas Lauffenburger, Peter Friedl.
      Resistance to therapeutic treatment and metastatic progression jointly determine a fatal outcome of cancer. Cancer metastasis and therapeutic resistance are traditionally studied as separate fields using non-overlapping strategies. However, emerging evidence, including from in vivo imaging and in vitro organotypic culture, now suggests that both programmes cooperate and reinforce each other in the invasion niche and persist upon metastatic evasion. As a consequence, cancer cell subpopulations exhibiting metastatic invasion undergo multistep reprogramming that - beyond migration signalling - supports repair programmes, anti-apoptosis processes, metabolic adaptation, stemness and survival. Shared metastasis and therapy resistance signalling are mediated by multiple mechanisms, such as engagement of integrins and other context receptors, cell-cell communication, stress responses and metabolic reprogramming, which cooperate with effects elicited by autocrine and paracrine chemokine and growth factor cues present in the activated tumour microenvironment. These signals empower metastatic cells to cope with therapeutic assault and survive. Identifying nodes shared in metastasis and therapy resistance signalling networks should offer new opportunities to improve anticancer therapy beyond current strategies, to eliminate both nodular lesions and cells in metastatic transit.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41568-021-00427-0
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