bims-ershed 2021-05-09 papers

bims-ershed

Biomed News

on ER Stress in Health and Diseases

Issue of 2021–05–09
fiveteen papers selected by
Matías Eduardo González Quiroz, Worker’s Hospital

Six lessons from a pandemic PhD student.
Monitoring mammalian mitochondrial translation with MitoRiboSeq.
The Unfolded Protein Response: An Overview.
The Ca2+ -binding protein sorcin stimulates transcriptional activity of the unfolded protein response mediator ATF6.
The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Response in Pollen Development and Heat Stress Tolerance.
NSMF promotes the replication stress-induced DNA damage response for genome maintenance.
Preservation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ stores by deletion of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor type 1 promotes ER retrotranslocation, proteostasis, and protein outer segment localization in cyclic nucleotide-gated channel-deficient cone photoreceptors.
Small molecule Y-320 stimulates ribosome biogenesis, protein synthesis, and aminoglycoside-induced premature termination codon readthrough.
A PERKy way to make mitochondrial cristae.
Laser Micro-Irradiation to Study DNA Recruitment During S Phase.
Ribosome dynamics and mRNA turnover, a complex relationship under constant cellular scrutiny.
Replication stress promotes cell elimination by extrusion.
NOX4 links metabolic regulation in pancreatic cancer to endoplasmic reticulum redox vulnerability and dependence on PRDX4.
Honokiol regulates endoplasmic reticulum stress by promoting the activation of the sirtuin 1-mediated protein kinase B pathway and ameliorates high glucose/high fat-induced dysfunction in human umbilical vein endothelial cells.
Restoration of Proteostasis in the Endoplasmic Reticulum Reverses an Inflammation-Like Response to Cytoplasmic DNA in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Nature. 2021 May 06.

Six lessons from a pandemic PhD student.

Ciara O'Brien.



Keywords:  Careers; Education; Lab life

DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-01233-2
Nat Protoc. 2021 May 05.

Monitoring mammalian mitochondrial translation with MitoRiboSeq.

Sophia Hsin-Jung Li, Michel Nofal, Lance R Parsons, Joshua D Rabinowitz, Zemer Gitai.

Several essential components of the electron transport chain, the major producer of ATP in mammalian cells, are encoded in the mitochondrial genome. These 13 proteins are translated within mitochondria by 'mitoribosomes'. Defective mitochondrial translation underlies multiple inborn errors of metabolism and has been implicated in pathologies such as aging, metabolic syndrome and cancer. Here, we provide a detailed ribosome profiling protocol optimized to interrogate mitochondrial translation in mammalian cells (MitoRiboSeq), wherein mitoribosome footprints are generated with micrococcal nuclease and mitoribosomes are separated from cytosolic ribosomes and other RNAs by ultracentrifugation in a single straightforward step. We highlight critical steps during library preparation and provide a step-by-step guide to data analysis accompanied by open-source bioinformatic code. Our method outputs mitoribosome footprints at single-codon resolution. Codons with high footprint densities are sites of mitoribosome stalling. We recently applied this approach to demonstrate that defects in mitochondrial serine catabolism or in mitochondrial tRNA methylation cause stalling of mitoribosomes at specific codons. Our method can be applied to study basic mitochondrial biology or to characterize abnormalities in mitochondrial translation in patients with mitochondrial disorders.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41596-021-00517-1
Biology (Basel). 2021 Apr 29. pii: 384. [Epub ahead of print]10(5):

The Unfolded Protein Response: An Overview.

Adam Read, Martin Schröder.

  The unfolded protein response is the mechanism by which cells control endoplasmic reticulum (ER) protein homeostasis. Under normal conditions, the UPR is not activated; however, under certain stresses, such as hypoxia or altered glycosylation, the UPR can be activated due to an accumulation of unfolded proteins. The activation of the UPR involves three signaling pathways, IRE1, PERK and ATF6, which all play vital roles in returning protein homeostasis to levels seen in non-stressed cells. IRE1 is the best studied of the three pathways, as it is the only pathway present in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This pathway involves spliceosome independent splicing of HAC1 or XBP1 in yeast and mammalians cells, respectively. PERK limits protein synthesis, therefore reducing the number of new proteins requiring folding. ATF6 is translocated and proteolytically cleaved, releasing a NH2 domain fragment which is transported to the nucleus and which affects gene expression. If the UPR is unsuccessful at reducing the load of unfolded proteins in the ER and the UPR signals remain activated, this can lead to programmed cell death.

Keywords:  ATF6; ERAD; IRE1; PERK; RIDD; UPR; inactivation

DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10050384
FEBS Lett. 2021 May 07.

The Ca2+ -binding protein sorcin stimulates transcriptional activity of the unfolded protein response mediator ATF6.

Steven Z Parks, Tian Gao, Natalia Jimenez Awuapura, Joseph Ayathamattam, Pauline L Chabosseau, Dhananjaya V Kalvakolanu, Héctor H Valdivia, Guy A Rutter, Isabelle Leclerc.

  Sorcin is a calcium-binding protein involved in maintaining endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ stores. We have previously shown that overexpressing sorcin under the rat insulin promoter was protective against high fat diet-induced pancreatic beta cell dysfunction in vivo. Activating Transcription Factor 6 (ATF6) is a key mediator of the unfolded protein response (UPR) that provides cellular protection during the progression of ER stress. Here, using non-excitable HEK293 cells, we show that sorcin overexpression increased ATF6 signalling, whereas sorcin knock out caused a reduction in ATF6 transcriptional activity and increased ER stress. Altogether, our data suggest that sorcin downregulation during lipotoxic stress may prevent full ATF6 activation and a normal UPR during the progression of obesity and insulin resistance.

Keywords:  ATF6; ER stress; Sorcin; lipotoxicity

DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/1873-3468.14101
Front Plant Sci. 2021 ;12 661062

The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Response in Pollen Development and Heat Stress Tolerance.

Mohan B Singh, Neeta Lohani, Prem L Bhalla.

  Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is defined by a protracted disruption in protein folding and accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the ER. This accumulation of unfolded proteins can result from excessive demands on the protein folding machinery triggered by environmental and cellular stresses such as nutrient deficiencies, oxidative stress, pathogens, and heat. The cell responds to ER stress by activating a protective pathway termed unfolded protein response (UPR), which comprises cellular mechanisms targeted to maintain cellular homeostasis by increasing the ER's protein folding capacity. The UPR is especially significant for plants as being sessile requires them to adapt to multiple environmental stresses. While multiple stresses trigger the UPR at the vegetative stage, it appears to be active constitutively in the anthers of unstressed plants. Transcriptome analysis reveals significant upregulation of ER stress-related transcripts in diploid meiocytes and haploid microspores. Interestingly, several ER stress-related genes are specifically upregulated in the sperm cells. The analysis of gene knockout mutants in Arabidopsis has revealed that defects in ER stress response lead to the failure of normal pollen development and enhanced susceptibility of male gametophyte to heat stress conditions. In this mini-review, we provide an overview of the role of ER stress and UPR in pollen development and its protective roles in maintaining male fertility under heat stress conditions.

Keywords:  endoplasmic reticulum stress; heat stress; male gametophyte; plant reproduction; pollen; pollen development; sperm cell; unfolded protein response

DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.661062
Nucleic Acids Res. 2021 May 08. pii: gkab311. [Epub ahead of print]

NSMF promotes the replication stress-induced DNA damage response for genome maintenance.

Min Kyung Ju, Kyeong Jin Shin, Joo Rak Lee, Keon Woo Khim, Eun A Lee, Jae Sun Ra, Byung-Gyu Kim, Han-Seul Jo, Jong Hyuk Yoon, Tae Moon Kim, Kyungjae Myung, Jang Hyun Choi, Hongtae Kim, Young Chan Chae.

Proper activation of DNA repair pathways in response to DNA replication stress is critical for maintaining genomic integrity. Due to the complex nature of the replication fork (RF), problems at the RF require multiple proteins, some of which remain unidentified, for resolution. In this study, we identified the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor synaptonuclear signaling and neuronal migration factor (NSMF) as a key replication stress response factor that is important for ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related protein (ATR) activation. NSMF localizes rapidly to stalled RFs and acts as a scaffold to modulate replication protein A (RPA) complex formation with cell division cycle 5-like (CDC5L) and ATR/ATR-interacting protein (ATRIP). Depletion of NSMF compromised phosphorylation and ubiquitination of RPA2 and the ATR signaling cascade, resulting in genomic instability at RFs under DNA replication stress. Consistently, NSMF knockout mice exhibited increased genomic instability and hypersensitivity to genotoxic stress. NSMF deficiency in human and mouse cells also caused increased chromosomal instability. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that NSMF regulates the ATR pathway and the replication stress response network for genome maintenance and cell survival.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkab311
FASEB J. 2021 Jun;35(6): e21579

Preservation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ stores by deletion of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor type 1 promotes ER retrotranslocation, proteostasis, and protein outer segment localization in cyclic nucleotide-gated channel-deficient cone photoreceptors.

Fan Yang, Hongwei Ma, Michael R Butler, Xi-Qin Ding.

  Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ homeostasis relies on an appropriate balance between efflux- and influx-channel activity responding to dynamic changes of intracellular Ca2+ levels. Dysregulation of this complex signaling network has been shown to contribute to neuronal and photoreceptor death in neuro- and retinal degenerative diseases, respectively. In mice with cone cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) channel deficiency, a model of achromatopsia/cone dystrophy, cones display early-onset ER stress-associated apoptosis and protein mislocalization. Cones in these mice also show reduced cytosolic Ca2+ level and subsequent elevation in the ER Ca2+ -efflux-channel activity, specifically the inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor type 1 (IP3 R1), and deletion of IP3 R1 results in preservation of cones. This work investigated how preservation of ER Ca2+ stores leads to cone protection. We examined the effects of cone specific deletion of IP3 R1 on ER stress responses/cone death, protein localization, and ER proteostasis/ER-associated degradation. We demonstrated that deletion of IP3 R1 improves trafficking of cone-specific proteins M-/S-opsin and phosphodiesterase 6C to cone outer segments and reduces localization to cone inner segments. Consistent with the improved protein localization, deletion of IP3 R1 results in increased ER retrotranslocation protein expression, reduced proteasome subunit expression, reduced ER stress/cone death, and reduced retinal remodeling. We also observed the enhanced ER retrotranslocation in mice that have been treated with a chemical chaperone, supporting the connection between improved ER retrotranslocation/proteostasis and alleviation of ER stress. Findings from this work demonstrate the importance of ER Ca2+ stores in ER proteostasis and protein trafficking/localization in photoreceptors, strengthen the link between dysregulation of ER Ca2+ homeostasis and ER stress/cone degeneration, and support an involvement of improved ER proteostasis in ER Ca2+ preservation-induced cone protection; thereby identifying IP3 R1 as a critical mediator of ER stress and protein mislocalization and as a potential target to preserve cones in CNG channel deficiency.

Keywords:  CNG channel; ER Ca2+ stores; ER stress; cone photoreceptors; inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor; retinal degeneration

DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.202002711R
PLoS Biol. 2021 May 03. 19(5): e3001221

Small molecule Y-320 stimulates ribosome biogenesis, protein synthesis, and aminoglycoside-induced premature termination codon readthrough.

Sara Hosseini-Farahabadi, Alireza Baradaran-Heravi, Carla Zimmerman, Kunho Choi, Stephane Flibotte, Michel Roberge.

Premature termination codons (PTC) cause over 10% of genetic disease cases. Some aminoglycosides that bind to the ribosome decoding center can induce PTC readthrough and restore low levels of full-length functional proteins. However, concomitant inhibition of protein synthesis limits the extent of PTC readthrough that can be achieved by aminoglycosides like G418. Using a cell-based screen, we identified a small molecule, the phenylpyrazoleanilide Y-320, that potently enhances TP53, DMD, and COL17A1 PTC readthrough by G418. Unexpectedly, Y-320 increased cellular protein levels and protein synthesis, measured by SYPRO Ruby protein staining and puromycin labeling, as well as ribosome biogenesis measured using antibodies to rRNA and ribosomal protein S6. Y-320 did not increase the rate of translation elongation and it exerted its effects independently of mTOR signaling. At the single cell level, exposure to Y-320 and G418 increased ribosome content and protein synthesis which correlated strongly with PTC readthrough. As a single agent, Y-320 did not affect translation fidelity measured using a luciferase reporter gene but it enhanced misincorporation by G418. RNA-seq data showed that Y-320 up-regulated the expression of CXC chemokines CXCL10, CXCL8, CXCL2, CXCL11, CXCL3, CXCL1, and CXCL16. Several of these chemokines exert their cellular effects through the receptor CXCR2 and the CXCR2 antagonist SB225002 reduced cellular protein levels and PTC readthrough in cells exposed to Y-320 and G418. These data show that the self-limiting nature of PTC readthrough by G418 can be compensated by Y-320, a potent enhancer of PTC readthrough that increases ribosome biogenesis and protein synthesis. They also support a model whereby increased PTC readthrough is enabled by increased protein synthesis mediated by an autocrine chemokine signaling pathway. The findings also raise the possibility that inflammatory processes affect cellular propensity to readthrough agents and that immunomodulatory drugs like Y-320 might find application in PTC readthrough therapy.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001221
Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2021 May 03. pii: S1043-2760(21)00075-8. [Epub ahead of print]

A PERKy way to make mitochondrial cristae.

Barbara Cannon, Jan Nedergaard.

  PERK protein, that is canonically associated with the response to endoplasmic reticulum stress, may be acquiring a new role as a regulator of the growth of mitochondrial cristae. This role is pertinent not only to the recruitment of brown adipose tissue thermogenic capacity but probably also to directing cristae formation in highly metabolically active organs such as the heart.

Keywords:  MICOS; brown adipose tissue; cristae; endoplasmic reticulum stress; mitochondria; norepinephrine

DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2021.04.003
J Vis Exp. 2021 Apr 16.

Laser Micro-Irradiation to Study DNA Recruitment During S Phase.

Bearach Miwatani-Minter, Gergely Rona.

DNA damage repair maintains the genetic integrity of cells in a highly reactive environment. Cells may accumulate various types of DNA damage due to both endogenous and exogenous sources such as metabolic activities or UV radiation. Without DNA repair, the cell's genetic code becomes compromised, undermining the structures and functions of proteins and potentially causing disease. Understanding the spatiotemporal dynamics of the different DNA repair pathways in various cell cycle phases is crucial in the field of DNA damage repair. Current fluorescent microscopy techniques provide great tools to measure the recruitment kinetics of different repair proteins after DNA damage induction. DNA synthesis during the S phase of the cell cycle is a peculiar point in cell fate regarding DNA repair. It provides a unique window to screen the entire genome for mistakes. At the same time, DNA synthesis errors also pose a threat to DNA integrity that is not encountered in non-dividing cells. Therefore, DNA repair processes differ significantly in S phase as compared to other phases of the cell cycle, and those differences are poorly understood. The following protocol describes the preparation of cell lines and the measurement of dynamics of DNA repair proteins in S phase at locally induced DNA damage sites, using a laser-scanning confocal microscope equipped with a 405 nm laser line. Tagged PCNA (with mPlum) is used as a cell cycle marker combined with an AcGFP-labeled repair protein of interest (i.e., EXO1b) to measure the DNA damage recruitment in S phase.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.3791/62466
Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA. 2021 May 05. e1658

Ribosome dynamics and mRNA turnover, a complex relationship under constant cellular scrutiny.

Christelle Morris, David Cluet, Emiliano P Ricci.

  Eukaryotic gene expression is closely regulated by translation and turnover of mRNAs. Recent advances highlight the importance of translation in the control of mRNA degradation, both for aberrant and apparently normal mRNAs. During translation, the information contained in mRNAs is decoded by ribosomes, one codon at a time, and tRNAs, by specifically recognizing codons, translate the nucleotide code into amino acids. Such a decoding step does not process regularly, with various obstacles that can hinder ribosome progression, then leading to ribosome stalling or collisions. The progression of ribosomes is constantly monitored by the cell which has evolved several translation-dependent mRNA surveillance pathways, including nonsense-mediated decay (NMD), no-go decay (NGD), and non-stop decay (NSD), to degrade certain problematic mRNAs and the incomplete protein products. Recent progress in sequencing and ribosome profiling has made it possible to discover new mechanisms controlling ribosome dynamics, with numerous crosstalks between translation and mRNA decay. We discuss here various translation features critical for mRNA decay, with particular focus on current insights from the complexity of the genetic code and also the emerging role for the ribosome as a regulatory hub orchestrating mRNA decay, quality control, and stress signaling. Even if the interplay between mRNA translation and degradation is no longer to be demonstrated, a better understanding of their precise coordination is worthy of further investigation. This article is categorized under: RNA Turnover and Surveillance > Regulation of RNA Stability Translation > Translation Regulation RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > RNA-Protein Complexes.

Keywords:  decay; degradation; mRNA; ribosome; translation

DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/wrna.1658
Nature. 2021 May 05.

Replication stress promotes cell elimination by extrusion.

Vivek K Dwivedi, Carlos Pardo-Pastor, Rita Droste, Ji Na Kong, Nolan Tucker, Daniel P Denning, Jody Rosenblatt, H Robert Horvitz.

Cell extrusion is a mechanism of cell elimination that is used by organisms as diverse as sponges, nematodes, insects and mammals1-3. During extrusion, a cell detaches from a layer of surrounding cells while maintaining the continuity of that layer4. Vertebrate epithelial tissues primarily eliminate cells by extrusion, and the dysregulation of cell extrusion has been linked to epithelial diseases, including cancer1,5. The mechanisms that drive cell extrusion remain incompletely understood. Here, to analyse cell extrusion by Caenorhabditis elegans embryos3, we conducted a genome-wide RNA interference screen, identified multiple cell-cycle genes with S-phase-specific function, and performed live-imaging experiments to establish how those genes control extrusion. Extruding cells experience replication stress during S phase and activate a replication-stress response via homologues of ATR and CHK1. Preventing S-phase entry, inhibiting the replication-stress response, or allowing completion of the cell cycle blocked cell extrusion. Hydroxyurea-induced replication stress6,7 triggered ATR-CHK1- and p53-dependent cell extrusion from a mammalian epithelial monolayer. We conclude that cell extrusion induced by replication stress is conserved among animals and propose that this extrusion process is a primordial mechanism of cell elimination with a tumour-suppressive function in mammals.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03526-y
Sci Adv. 2021 May;pii: eabf7114. [Epub ahead of print]7(19):

NOX4 links metabolic regulation in pancreatic cancer to endoplasmic reticulum redox vulnerability and dependence on PRDX4.

Pallavi Jain, Anna Dvorkin-Gheva, Erik Mollen, Lucie Malbeteau, Michael Xie, Fatima Jessa, Piriththiv Dhavarasa, Stephen Chung, Kevin R Brown, Gun Ho Jang, Parth Vora, Faiyaz Notta, Jason Moffat, David Hedley, Paul C Boutros, Bradly G Wouters, Marianne Koritzinsky.

There is an urgent need to identify vulnerabilities in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). PDAC cells acquire metabolic changes that augment NADPH production and cytosolic redox homeostasis. Here, we show that high NADPH levels drive activity of NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4) expressed in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane. NOX4 produces H2O2 metabolized by peroxiredoxin 4 (PRDX4) in the ER lumen. Using functional genomics and subsequent in vitro and in vivo validations, we find that PDAC cell lines with high NADPH levels are dependent on PRDX4 for their growth and survival. PRDX4 addiction is associated with increased reactive oxygen species, a DNA-PKcs-governed DNA damage response and radiosensitivity, which can be rescued by depletion of NOX4 or NADPH. Hence, this study has identified NOX4 as a protein that paradoxically converts the reducing power of the cytosol to an ER-specific oxidative stress vulnerability in PDAC that may be therapeutically exploited by targeting PRDX4.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abf7114
Endocr J. 2021 Apr 29.

Honokiol regulates endoplasmic reticulum stress by promoting the activation of the sirtuin 1-mediated protein kinase B pathway and ameliorates high glucose/high fat-induced dysfunction in human umbilical vein endothelial cells.

Hong Ye, Ying Meng.

  Honokiol plays an important role in anti-oxidation, but its role in diabetic vascular complications is unclear. In this study, the effects of honokiol in high glucose/high fat (HG/HF)-induced human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were explored. After pre-treatment with honokiol, the cells were transferred to an HG/HF medium, and cell viability and apoptosis were respectively measured by methyl tetrazolium and flow cytometry. Moreover, the contents of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were measured. The expressions of C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP), glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), phosphorylated-protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (p-PERK), phosphorylated-inositol requiring enzyme-1α (p-IRE1α), cleaved caspase-3 and SIRT1 were determined by Western blot or quantitative real-time PCR, respectively. Finally, the viability, apoptosis, and the contents of ROS, MDA, and SOD, as well as the expressions of CHOP, GRP78, p-PERK, p-IRE1α, cleaved caspase-3, Akt, p-Akt, and SIRT1 in the cells transfected with small interfering RNA SIRT1 (siSIRT1) were detected by the previously mentioned methods. Honokiol reversed the effect of HG/HF on promoting cell apoptosis, ROS and MDA contents, and the expressions of CHOP, GRP78, p-PERK, p-IRE1α and cleaved caspase-3, and also reversed the inhibitory effect of HG/HF on cell viability, SOD content and SIRT1 expression. However, siSIRT1 reversed the above effects caused by honokiol. Honokiol activated SIRT1 promoter. SIRT1 interacted with Akt, consequently promoting the activity of Akt. Therefore, honokiol activates the Akt pathway by regulating SIRT1 expression to regulate endoplasmic reticulum stress, promotes cell viability and inhibits the apoptosis of HG/HF-induced HUVECs.

Keywords:  Akt; Apoptosis; Endoplasmic reticulum stress; Honokiol; Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs)

DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1507/endocrj.EJ20-0747
Genetics. 2019 Aug 01. 212(4): 1259-1278

Restoration of Proteostasis in the Endoplasmic Reticulum Reverses an Inflammation-Like Response to Cytoplasmic DNA in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Ashley B Williams, Felix Heider, Jan-Erik Messling, Matthias Rieckher, Wilhelm Bloch, Björn Schumacher.

  Caenorhabditis elegans possesses a rudimentary innate immune response that serves as a model for various aspects of the human innate immune response. To date, a nematode response to pathogenic cytoplasmic DNA has not been identified... Innate immune responses protect organisms against various insults, but may lead to tissue damage when aberrantly activated. In higher organisms, cytoplasmic DNA can trigger inflammatory responses that can lead to tissue degeneration. Simpler metazoan models could shed new mechanistic light on how inflammatory responses to cytoplasmic DNA lead to pathologies. Here, we show that in a DNase II-defective Caenorhabditis elegans strain, persistent cytoplasmic DNA leads to systemic tissue degeneration and loss of tissue functionality due to impaired proteostasis. These pathological outcomes can be therapeutically alleviated by restoring protein homeostasis, either via ectopic induction of the ER unfolded protein response or N-acetylglucosamine treatment. Our results establish C. elegans as an ancestral metazoan model for studying the outcomes of inflammation-like conditions caused by persistent cytoplasmic DNA and provide insight into potential therapies for human conditions involving chronic inflammation.

Keywords:   Caenorhabditis elegans ; DNA sensing; DNase II; inflammatory responses; innate immunity

DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.119.302422