bims-drudre Biomed News
on Targeted drug delivery and programmed release mechanisms
Issue of 2021–06–13
fourteen papers selected by
Ceren Kimna, Technical University of Munich
  1. In Vivo Editing of Macrophages through Systemic Delivery of CRISPR-Cas9-Ribonucleoprotein-Nanoparticle Nanoassemblies.
  2. Development of next-generation tumor-homing induced neural stem cells to enhance treatment of metastatic cancers.
  3. Spatially Selective Imaging of Mitochondrial MicroRNAs via Optically Programmable Strand Displacement Reactions.
  4. Dynamic self-assembly of compartmentalized DNA nanotubes.
  5. Salicylic acid-based nanomedicine with self-immunomodulatory activity facilitates microRNA therapy for metabolic skeletal disorders.
  6. A Synergistic DNA-polydopamine-MnO2 Nanocomplex for Near-Infrared-Light-Powered DNAzyme-Mediated Gene Therapy.
  7. DNA Origami Penetration in Cell Spheroid Tissue Models is Enhanced by Wireframe Design.
  8. Synthetic platelet microgels containing fibrin knob B mimetic motifs enhance clotting responses.
  9. Efficient and precise delivery of microRNA by photoacoustic force generated from semiconducting polymer-based nanocarriers.
  10. Design and Use of a Thermogelling Methylcellulose Nanoemulsion to Formulate Nanocrystalline Oral Dosage Forms.
  11. Infrared-Emitting Multimodal Nanostructures for Controlled In Vivo Magnetic Hyperthermia.
  12. Hydrogel-Induced Cell Membrane Disruptions Enable Direct Cytosolic Delivery of Membrane-Impermeable Cargo.
  13. Facile Transformation of Murine and Human Primary Dendritic Cells into Robust and Modular Artificial Antigen-Presenting Systems by Intracellular Hydrogelation.
  14. Adaptive and multifunctional hydrogel hybrid probes for long-term sensing and modulation of neural activity.
  1. Adv Ther (Weinh). 2019 Oct;pii: 1900041. [Epub ahead of print]2(10):
    In Vivo Editing of Macrophages through Systemic Delivery of CRISPR-Cas9-Ribonucleoprotein-Nanoparticle Nanoassemblies.
    Yi-Wei Lee, Rubul Mout, David C Luther, Yuanchang Liu, Laura Castellanos-García, Amy S Burnside, Moumita Ray, Gulen Yeşilbag Tonga, Joseph Hardie, Harini Nagaraj, Riddha Das, Erin L Phillips, Tristan Tay, Richard W Vachet, Vincent M Rotello.
      Macrophages are key effectors of host defense and metabolism, making them promising targets for transient genetic therapy. Gene editing through delivery of the Cas9-ribonucleoprotein (RNP) provides multiple advantages over gene delivery-based strategies for introducing CRISPR machinery to the cell. There are, however, significant physiological, cellular, and intracellular barriers to the effective delivery of the Cas9 protein and guide RNA (sgRNA) that have to date, restricted in vivo Cas9 protein-based approaches to local/topical delivery applications. Herein we describe a new nanoassembled platform featuring co-engineered nanoparticles and Cas9 protein that has been developed to provide efficient Cas9-sgRNA delivery and concomitant CRISPR editing through systemic tail-vein injection into mice, achieving >8% gene editing efficiency in macrophages of the liver and spleen.
    Keywords:  CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoprotein delivery; gene editing; in vivo delivery; phagocyte targeting; protein delivery
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/adtp.201900041
  2. Sci Adv. 2021 Jun;pii: eabf1526. [Epub ahead of print]7(24):
    Development of next-generation tumor-homing induced neural stem cells to enhance treatment of metastatic cancers.
    Wulin Jiang, Yuchen Yang, Alison R Mercer-Smith, Alain Valdivia, Juli R Bago, Alex S Woodell, Andrew A Buckley, Michael H Marand, Li Qian, Carey K Anders, Shawn D Hingtgen.
      Engineered tumor-homing neural stem cells (NSCs) have shown promise in treating cancer. Recently, we transdifferentiated skin fibroblasts into human-induced NSCs (hiNSC) as personalized NSC drug carriers. Here, using a SOX2 and spheroidal culture-based reprogramming strategy, we generated a new hiNSC variant, hiNeuroS, that was genetically distinct from fibroblasts and first-generation hiNSCs and had significantly enhanced tumor-homing and antitumor properties. In vitro, hiNeuroSs demonstrated superior migration to human triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells and in vivo rapidly homed to TNBC tumor foci following intracerebroventricular (ICV) infusion. In TNBC parenchymal metastasis models, ICV infusion of hiNeuroSs secreting the proapoptotic agent TRAIL (hiNeuroS-TRAIL) significantly reduced tumor burden and extended median survival. In models of TNBC leptomeningeal carcinomatosis, ICV dosing of hiNeuroS-TRAIL therapy significantly delayed the onset of tumor formation and extended survival when administered as a prophylactic treatment, as well as reduced tumor volume while prolonging survival when delivered as established tumor therapy.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abf1526
  3. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2021 Jun 12.
    Spatially Selective Imaging of Mitochondrial MicroRNAs via Optically Programmable Strand Displacement Reactions.
    Jian Zhao, Zhixiang Li, Yulei Shao, Wenping Hu, Lele Li.
      MicroRNA (miRNA) functions are tightly regulated by their sub-compartmental location in living cells, and the ability to imaging of mitochondrial miRNAs (mitomiRs) is essential for understanding of the related pathological processes. However, most existing DNA-based methods could not be used for this purpose. Here, we report the development of a DNA nanoreporter technology for imaging of mitomiRs in living cells through near-infrared (NIR) light-controlled DNA strand displacement reactions. The sensing function of the DNA nanoreporters are silent (OFF) during the delivery process, but can be photoactivated (ON) with NIR light after targeted mitochondrial localization, enabling spatially-restricted imaging of two types of cancer-related mitomiRs with improved detection accuracy. Furthermore, we demonstrate imaging of mitomiRs in vivo through spatiotemporally-controlled delivery and activation. Therefore, this study illustrates a simple methodology that may be broadly applicable for investigating the mitomiRs-associated physiological events.
    Keywords:  DNA-based probes; Mitochondria; microRNA imaging; optical control
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202105696
  4. Nat Commun. 2021 Jun 11. 12(1): 3557
    Dynamic self-assembly of compartmentalized DNA nanotubes.
    Siddharth Agarwal, Melissa A Klocke, Passa E Pungchai, Elisa Franco.
      Bottom-up synthetic biology aims to engineer artificial cells capable of responsive behaviors by using a minimal set of molecular components. An important challenge toward this goal is the development of programmable biomaterials that can provide active spatial organization in cell-sized compartments. Here, we demonstrate the dynamic self-assembly of nucleic acid (NA) nanotubes inside water-in-oil droplets. We develop methods to encapsulate and assemble different types of DNA nanotubes from programmable DNA monomers, and demonstrate temporal control of assembly via designed pathways of RNA production and degradation. We examine the dynamic response of encapsulated nanotube assembly and disassembly with the support of statistical analysis of droplet images. Our study provides a toolkit of methods and components to build increasingly complex and functional NA materials to mimic life-like functions in synthetic cells.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-23850-1
  5. Acta Biomater. 2021 Jun 02. pii: S1742-7061(21)00334-2. [Epub ahead of print]
    Salicylic acid-based nanomedicine with self-immunomodulatory activity facilitates microRNA therapy for metabolic skeletal disorders.
    Yan Li, Bolei Cai, Zhaoyichun Zhang, Guanlin Qu, Lu Chen, Guojun Chen, Tingxizi Liang, Chi Yang, Ling Fan, Zhiyuan Zhang.
      Metabolic skeletal disorders remain a major clinical challenge. The complexity of this disease requires a strategy to address the net effects of both inflammation and impaired bone formation. microRNA-based gene therapy provides several therapeutic advantages to tackle these issues. Herein, we describe a microRNA-21 (miR-21) delivery system with an additional therapeutic effect from that of the delivery carrier itself. Poly (salicylic acid) (PSA) is, for the first time, synthesized via polycondensation of salicylic acid (SA), a bioactive ingredient widely used for anti-inflammation in medicine. PSA can self-assemble into nanoparticles (PSA-NPs) and can effectively deliver genes both in vitro and in vivo. The carrier was then attached to repetitive sequences of aspartate, serine, serine (DSS)6 for delivering miRNAs specifically to bone-formation surfaces. In vitro studies showed that miR-21@PSA-NP could effectively realize the intracellular delivery of miR-21 with low toxicity, while in vivo results indicated that the miR-21@PSA-NP-DSS6 prolonged blood circulation time, enhanced bone accumulation, and significantly improved the efficacy of miR-21-based bone anabolic therapy in osteoporotic mice. The constructed delivery system (miR-21@PSA-NP-DSS6) inherited the advantages of both SA and miR-21, which could ameliorate bone-inflamed niche and rescued the impaired bone formation ability. The synergy of anti-inflammatory and pro-osteogenic effects significantly improved trabecular bone microstructure in osteoporotic mice.
    Keywords:  Drug delivery; metabolic skeletal disorders; nanomedicine; salicylic acid; self-immunomodulation
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2021.05.024
  6. Nano Lett. 2021 Jun 08.
    A Synergistic DNA-polydopamine-MnO2 Nanocomplex for Near-Infrared-Light-Powered DNAzyme-Mediated Gene Therapy.
    Huaixin Zhao, Zhili Zhang, Duo Zuo, Linghui Li, Feng Li, Dayong Yang.
      DNAzyme is emerging for gene therapy. The administration of the in vivo catalytic activity of DNAzyme has proven important but challenging for clinical applications. Herein, we report a synergistic DNA-polydopamine-MnO2 nanocomplex, which enables near-infrared (NIR)-light-powered catalytic activity of DNAzyme in vivo. The nanocomplex has a hierarchical structure: a DNA nanoframework as the scaffold and polydopamine-MnO2 (PM) as the coating layer. The DNA nanoframework contains repeated DNAzyme sequences. PM assembles on the surface of the DNA nanoframework. When the nanocomplex accumulates at tumor sites, upon NIR-light radiation, polydopamine induces a temperature elevation at tumor sites via photothermal conversion; meanwhile, glutathione triggers decomposition of PM to release Mn2+ to activate DNAzyme in the cytoplasm for gene regulation. In vitro and in vivo experiments show that the PM-induced temperature elevation enhances the Egr-1 mRNA cleavage activity of DNAzyme, promoting downregulation of the Egr-1 protein in tumor cells. In addition, the temperature elevation induces heat stress, achieving a synergistic tumor ablation effect.
    Keywords:  DNA nanotechnology; DNAzyme; Gene delivery; Gene therapy
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c01727
  7. Adv Mater. 2021 Jun 06. e2008457
    DNA Origami Penetration in Cell Spheroid Tissue Models is Enhanced by Wireframe Design.
    Yang Wang, Erik Benson, Ferenc Fördős, Marco Lolaico, Igor Baars, Trixy Fang, Ana I Teixeira, Björn Högberg.
      As DNA origami applications in biomedicine are expanding, more knowledge is needed to assess these structures' interaction with biological systems. Here, uptake and penetration in cell and cell spheroid tissue models (CSTMs) are studied to elucidate whether differences in internal structure can be a factor in the efficacy of DNA-origami-based delivery. Two structures bearing largely similar features in terms of both geometry and molecular weight, but with different internal designs-being either compact, lattice-based origami or following an open, wireframe design-are designed. In CSTMs, wireframe rods are able to penetrate deeper than close-packed rods. Moreover, doxorubicin-loaded wireframe rods show a higher cytotoxicity in CSTMs. These results can be explained by differences in structural mechanics, local deformability, local material density, and accessibility to cell receptors between these two DNA origami design paradigms. In particular, it is suggested that the main reason for the difference in penetration dynamic arises from differences in interaction with scavenger receptors where lattice-based structures appear to be internalized to a higher degree than polygonal structures of the same size and shape. It is thus argued that the choice of structural design method constitutes a crucial parameter for the application of DNA origami in drug delivery.
    Keywords:  DNA origami design; cell spheroid tissue model penetration; cell uptake; drug delivery; structure flexibility
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202008457
  8. Adv Ther (Weinh). 2021 May 10. pii: 2100010. [Epub ahead of print]4(5):
    Synthetic platelet microgels containing fibrin knob B mimetic motifs enhance clotting responses.
    Seema Nandi, Emily Mihalko, Kimberly Nellenbach, Mario Castaneda, John Schneible, Mary Harp, Halston Deal, Michael Daniele, Stefano Menegatti, Thomas H Barker, Ashley C Brown.
      Native platelets are crucial players in wound healing. Key to their role is the ability of their surface receptor GPIIb/IIIa to bind fibrin at injury sites, thereby promoting clotting. When platelet activity is impaired as a result of traumatic injury or certain diseases, uncontrolled bleeding can result. To aid clotting and tissue repair in cases of poor platelet activity, our lab has previously developed synthetic platelet-like particles capable of promoting clotting and improving wound healing responses. These are constructed by functionalizing highly deformable hydrogel microparticles (microgels) with fibrin-binding ligands including a fibrin-specific whole antibody or a single-domain variable fragment. To improve the translational potential of these clotting materials, we explored the use of fibrin-binding peptides as cost-effective, robust, high-specificity alternatives to antibodies. Herein, we present the development and characterization of soft microgels decorated with the peptide AHRPYAAK that mimics fibrin knob 'B' and targets fibrin hole 'b'. These "Fibrin-Affine Microgels with Clotting Yield" (FAMCY) were found to significantly increase clot density in vitro and decrease bleeding in a rodent trauma model in vivo. These results indicate that FAMCYs are capable of recapitulating the platelet-mimetic properties of previous designs while utilizing a less costly, more translational design.
    Keywords:  biomimetic; clotting; fibrin; hemorrhage; knob B; synthetic platelets; trauma; wound healing
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/adtp.202100010
  9. Biomaterials. 2021 May 24. pii: S0142-9612(21)00263-5. [Epub ahead of print]275 120907
    Efficient and precise delivery of microRNA by photoacoustic force generated from semiconducting polymer-based nanocarriers.
    Tianyi Kang, Jen-Shyang Ni, Tingting Li, Jun Wang, Zeshun Li, Yaxi Li, Menglei Zha, Chen Zhang, Xue Wu, Heng Guo, Lei Xi, Kai Li.
      One major challenge in miRNA-based therapy is to explore facile delivery strategies, which can facilitate the efficient and precise accumulation of intrinsically instable microRNAs (miRNAs) at targeted tumor sites. To address this critical issue, for the first time we demonstrate that a near-infrared (NIR) pulse laser can guide efficient delivery of miRNAs mediated by a NIR-absorbing and photoacoustic active semiconducting polymer (SP) nanocarrier, which can generate photoacoustic radiation force to intravascularly overcome the endothelial barriers. Importantly, we demonstrate an ultrafast delivery of miRNA (miR-7) to tumor tissues under the irradiation of pulse laser in 20 min, showing a 5-fold boosted efficiency in comparison to the traditional passive targeting strategy. The delivered miR-7 acts as a sensitizer of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and synergizes with TRAIL-inducing compound (TIC), leading to sustained TRAIL upregulation for effective tumor suppression in mice. As such, our results indicate that the NIR-absorbing semiconducting polymer-mediated nanocarrier platform can significantly enhance the targeted delivery efficiency of therapeutic miRNAs to tumors, resulting in potent tumor growth inhibition.
    Keywords:  Cancer therapy; MicroRNA delivery; Photoacoustic force; Pulse laser; Semiconducting polymer
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.120907
  10. Adv Mater. 2021 Jun 07. e2008618
    Design and Use of a Thermogelling Methylcellulose Nanoemulsion to Formulate Nanocrystalline Oral Dosage Forms.
    Liang-Hsun Chen, Patrick S Doyle.
      Oral drug products have become indispensable in modern medicine because of their exceptional patient compliance. However, poor bioavailability of ubiquitous low-water-soluble active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and lack of efficient oral drug formulations remain as significant challenges. Nanocrystalline formulations are an attractive route to increase API solubility, but typically require abrasive mechanical milling and several processing steps to create an oral dosage form. Using the dual amphiphilic and thermoresponsive properties of methylcellulose (MC), a new thermogelling nanoemulsion and a facile thermal dripping method are developed for efficient formulation of composite particles with the MC matrix embedded with precisely controlled API nanocrystals. Moreover, a fast and tunable release performance is achieved with the combination of a fast-eroding MC matrix and fast-dissolving API nanocrystals. Using the versatile thermal processing approach, the thermogelling nanoemulsion is easily formulated into a wide variety of dosage forms (nanoparticle suspension, drug tablet, and oral thin film) in a manner that avoids nanomilling. Overall, the proposed thermogelling nanoemulsion platform not only broadens the applications of thermoresponsive nanoemulsions but also shows great promise for more efficient formulation of oral drug products with high quality and tunable fast release.
    Keywords:  hydrogel particles; hydrophobic drugs; nanocrystals; oral dosage forms; thermoresponsive nanoemulsions
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202008618
  11. Adv Mater. 2021 Jun 12. e2100077
    Infrared-Emitting Multimodal Nanostructures for Controlled In Vivo Magnetic Hyperthermia.
    Erving Ximendes, Riccardo Marin, Yingli Shen, Diego Ruiz, Diego Gómez-Cerezo, Paloma Rodríguez-Sevilla, Jose Lifante, Perla X Viveros-Méndez, Francisco Gámez, David García-Soriano, Gorka Salas, Carmen Zalbidea, Ana Espinosa, Antonio Benayas, Nuria García-Carrillo, Lorena Cussó, Manuel Desco, Francisco J Teran, Beatriz H Juárez, Daniel Jaque.
      Deliberate and local increase of the temperature within solid tumors represents an effective therapeutic approach. Thermal therapies embrace this concept leveraging the capability of some species to convert the absorbed energy into heat. To that end, magnetic hyperthermia (MHT) uses magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) that can effectively dissipate the energy absorbed under alternating magnetic fields. However, MNPs fail to provide real-time thermal feedback with the risk of unwanted overheating and impeding on-the-fly adjustment of the therapeutic parameters. Localization of MNPs within a tissue in an accurate, rapid, and cost-effective way represents another challenge for increasing the efficacy of MHT. In this work, MNPs are combined with state-of-the-art infrared luminescent nanothermometers (LNTh; Ag2 S nanoparticles) in a nanocapsule that simultaneously overcomes these limitations. The novel optomagnetic nanocapsule acts as multimodal contrast agents for different imaging techniques (magnetic resonance, photoacoustic and near-infrared fluorescence imaging, optical and X-ray computed tomography). Most crucially, these nanocapsules provide accurate (0.2 °C resolution) and real-time subcutaneous thermal feedback during in vivo MHT, also enabling the attainment of thermal maps of the area of interest. These findings are a milestone on the road toward controlled magnetothermal therapies with minimal side effects.
    Keywords:  in vivo imaging; luminescence thermometry; magnetic hyperthermia; near-infrared fluorescence; silver sulfide nanoparticles
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202100077
  12. Adv Mater. 2021 Jun 09. e2008054
    Hydrogel-Induced Cell Membrane Disruptions Enable Direct Cytosolic Delivery of Membrane-Impermeable Cargo.
    Jelter Van Hoeck, Thijs Van de Vyver, Aranit Harizaj, Glenn Goetgeluk, Pieterjan Merckx, Jing Liu, Mike Wels, Félix Sauvage, Herlinde De Keersmaecker, Christian Vanhove, Olivier G de Jong, Pieter Vader, Heleen Dewitte, Bart Vandekerckhove, Kevin Braeckmans, Stefaan C De Smedt, Koen Raemdonck.
      Intracellular delivery of membrane-impermeable cargo offers unique opportunities for biological research and the development of cell-based therapies. Despite the breadth of available intracellular delivery tools, existing protocols are often suboptimal and alternative approaches that merge delivery efficiency with both biocompatibility, as well as applicability, remain highly sought after. Here, a comprehensive platform is presented that exploits the unique property of cationic hydrogel nanoparticles to transiently disrupt the plasma membrane of cells, allowing direct cytosolic delivery of uncomplexed membrane-impermeable cargo. Using this platform, which is termed Hydrogel-enabled nanoPoration or HyPore, the delivery of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-dextran macromolecules in various cancer cell lines and primary bovine corneal epithelial cells is convincingly demonstrated. Of note, HyPore demonstrates efficient FITC-dextran delivery in primary human T cells, outperforming state-of-the-art electroporation-mediated delivery. Moreover, the HyPore platform enables cytosolic delivery of functional proteins, including a histone-binding nanobody as well as the enzymes granzyme A and Cre-recombinase. Finally, HyPore-mediated delivery of the MRI contrast agent gadobutrol in primary human T cells significantly improves their T1 -weighted MRI signal intensities compared to electroporation. Taken together, HyPore is proposed as a straightforward, highly versatile, and cost-effective technique for high-throughput, ex vivo manipulation of primary cells and cell lines.
    Keywords:  cell therapy; contrast-enhanced MRI; hydrogels; intracellular delivery; membrane disruption; nanogels; protein delivery
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202008054
  13. Adv Mater. 2021 Jun 07. e2101190
    Facile Transformation of Murine and Human Primary Dendritic Cells into Robust and Modular Artificial Antigen-Presenting Systems by Intracellular Hydrogelation.
    Jung-Chen Lin, Chung-Yao Hsu, Jui-Yi Chen, Zih-Syun Fang, Hui-Wen Chen, Bing-Yu Yao, Gwo Harn M Shiau, Jeng-Shiang Tsai, Ming Gu, Meiying Jung, Tong-Young Lee, Che-Ming J Hu.
      The growing enthusiasm for cancer immunotherapies and adoptive cell therapies has prompted increasing interest in biomaterials development mimicking natural antigen-presenting cells (APCs) for T-cell expansion. In contrast to conventional bottom-up approaches aimed at layering synthetic substrates with T-cell activation cues, transformation of live dendritic cells (DCs) into artificial APCs (aAPCs) is demonstrated herein using a facile and minimally disruptive hydrogelation technique. Through direct intracellular permeation of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEG-DA) hydrogel monomer and UV-activated radical polymerization, intracellular hydrogelation is rapidly accomplished on DCs with minimal influence on cellular morphology and surface antigen display, yielding highly robust and modular cell-gel hybrid constructs amenable to peptide antigen exchange, storable by freezing and lyophilization, and functionalizable with cytokine-releasing carriers for T-cell modulation. The DC-derived aAPCs are shown to induce prolonged T-cell expansion and improve anticancer efficacy of adoptive T-cell therapy in mice compared to nonexpanded control T cells, and the gelation technique is further demonstrated to stabilize primary DCs derived from human donors. The work presents a versatile approach for generating a new class of cell-mimicking biomaterials and opens new venues for immunological interrogation and immunoengineering.
    Keywords:  T-cell expansion; artificial antigen-presenting cells; cancer immunotherapy; intracellular hydrogelation; radical polymerization
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202101190
  14. Nat Commun. 2021 06 08. 12(1): 3435
    Adaptive and multifunctional hydrogel hybrid probes for long-term sensing and modulation of neural activity.
    Seongjun Park, Hyunwoo Yuk, Ruike Zhao, Yeong Shin Yim, Eyob W Woldeghebriel, Jeewoo Kang, Andres Canales, Yoel Fink, Gloria B Choi, Xuanhe Zhao, Polina Anikeeva.
      To understand the underlying mechanisms of progressive neurophysiological phenomena, neural interfaces should interact bi-directionally with brain circuits over extended periods of time. However, such interfaces remain limited by the foreign body response that stems from the chemo-mechanical mismatch between the probes and the neural tissues. To address this challenge, we developed a multifunctional sensing and actuation platform consisting of multimaterial fibers intimately integrated within a soft hydrogel matrix mimicking the brain tissue. These hybrid devices possess adaptive bending stiffness determined by the hydration states of the hydrogel matrix. This enables their direct insertion into the deep brain regions, while minimizing tissue damage associated with the brain micromotion after implantation. The hydrogel hybrid devices permit electrophysiological, optogenetic, and behavioral studies of neural circuits with minimal foreign body responses and tracking of stable isolated single neuron potentials in freely moving mice over 6 months following implantation.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-23802-9
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