bims-auttor Biomed News
on Autophagy and mTOR
Issue of 2021–07–11
fifty-two papers selected by
Viktor Korolchuk, Newcastle University
  1. FIP200 controls the TBK1 activation threshold at SQSTM1/p62-positive condensates.
  2. Targeting autophagy in disease: established and new strategies.
  3. An mTORC1-Plin3 pathway is essential to activate lipophagy and protects against hepatosteatosis.
  4. Autophagic flux assessment by immunoblot.
  5. Assessment of mammalian endosomal microautophagy.
  6. Quantitative determination of mitophagy by fluorescence microscope.
  7. The evolution of autophagy proteins - diversification in eukaryotes and potential ancestors in prokaryotes.
  8. A new insight into the lens: cytosolic PLAAT phospholipases degrade organelles to make the lens transparent.
  9. Binding Features and Functions of ATG3.
  10. Membrane perturbation by lipidated Atg8 underlies autophagosome biogenesis.
  11. Nrf2 activation induces mitophagy and reverses Parkin/Pink1 knock down-mediated neuronal and muscle degeneration phenotypes.
  12. MTORC1 inhibition drives crinophagic degradation of glucagon.
  13. RAB7 activity is required for the regulation of mitophagy in oocyte meiosis and oocyte quality control during ovarian aging.
  14. Galectin-8 Senses Phagosomal Damage and Recruits Selective Autophagy Adapter TAX1BP1 To Control Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection in Macrophages.
  15. Regulation of autophagy by protein methylation and acetylation in cancer.
  16. Autophagy: Instructions from the extracellular matrix.
  17. Monitoring lipophagy in kidney epithelial cells in response to shear stress.
  18. Proteostasis failure and mitochondrial dysfunction leads to aneuploidy-induced senescence.
  19. Degradation of lipid droplets by chimeric autophagy-tethering compounds.
  20. New tricks for the old autophagy protein Atg8.
  21. Carbofuran affects cellular autophagy and developmental senescence through the impairment of Nrf2 signalling.
  22. Phloretin suppresses neuroinflammation by autophagy-mediated Nrf2 activation in macrophages.
  23. The Akt-mTORC1 pathway mediates Axl receptor tyrosine kinase-induced mesangial cell proliferation.
  24. Monitoring TFEB translocation.
  25. Autophagy assessment in circulating leukocytes.
  26. iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomics suggests mitophagy involvement after Rice black-streaked dwarf virus acquisition in insect vector small brown planthopper Laodelphax striatellus Fallén.
  27. MEHP induces pyroptosis and autophagy alternation by cathepsin B activation in INS-1 cells.
  28. Assessing autophagic flux in yeast.
  29. Increased LAMP2A levels correlate with a shorter disease-free survival of HER2 negative breast cancer patients and increased breast cancer cell viability.
  30. Inhibition of mTOR signaling by rapamycin protects photoreceptors from degeneration in rd1 mice.
  31. SREBP-1c impairs ULK1 sulfhydration-mediated autophagic flux to promote hepatic steatosis in high-fat-diet-fed mice.
  32. Quantitative determination of autophagy flux by probes.
  33. Multiple analysis of mitochondrial metabolism, autophagy and cell death.
  34. Ferroptosis Regulation by Nutrient Signaling.
  35. Measuring oxidation within LC3-associated phagosomes that optimizes MHC class II restricted antigen presentation.
  36. Autophagy and cancer metastasis: a Trojan horse.
  37. Live cell imaging of LC3 dynamics.
  38. Protein S-nitrosylation and oxidation contribute to protein misfolding in neurodegeneration.
  39. Drugs that offer the potential to reduce hospitalization and mortality from SARS-CoV-2 infection: The possible role of the Sigma-1 receptor and autophagy.
  40. Impact of single amino acid substitution on the structure and function of TANK-binding kinase-1.
  41. Crosstalk between beta-adrenergic and insulin signaling mediates mechanistic target of rapamycin hyperactivation in liver of high-fat diet-fed male mice.
  42. Commercially Available Eye Drops Containing Trehalose Protect Against Dry Conditions via Autophagy Induction.
  43. MicroRNA-124-3p inhibited progression of nasopharyngeal carcinoma by interaction with PCDH8 and the inactivation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway.
  44. NF-κB is involved in the regulation of autophagy in mutant p53 cells in response to ionizing radiation.
  45. Structure of the TELO2-TTI1-TTI2 complex and its function in TOR recruitment to the R2TP chaperone.
  46. Autophagy: A Novel Pharmacological Target in Diabetic Retinopathy.
  47. microRNA-106b-containing extracellular vesicles affect autophagy of neurons by regulating CDKN2B in Parkinson's disease.
  48. Parkinson's Disease Genetics and Pathophysiology.
  49. A new application of mTOR inhibitor drugs as potential therapeutic agents for COVID-19.
  50. Cryo-electron tomography provides topological insights into mutant huntingtin exon 1 and polyQ aggregates.
  51. Autophagy in vascular dementia and natural products with autophagy regulating activity.
  52. Lipophagy and prostate cancer: association with disease aggressiveness and proximity to periprostatic adipose tissue.
  1. Sci Rep. 2021 Jul 05. 11(1): 13863
    FIP200 controls the TBK1 activation threshold at SQSTM1/p62-positive condensates.
    David Schlütermann, Niklas Berleth, Jana Deitersen, Nora Wallot-Hieke, Olena Friesen, Wenxian Wu, Fabian Stuhldreier, Yadong Sun, Lena Berning, Annabelle Friedrich, María José Mendiburo, Christoph Peter, Constanze Wiek, Helmut Hanenberg, Anja Stefanski, Kai Stühler, Björn Stork.
      The protein kinase TBK1 is a central regulator of innate immune responses and autophagy, and ablation of either function has been linked to neuroinflammatory or degenerative diseases. Autophagy is an intracellular process that recycles old or damaged proteins and organelles. In recent years, the TBK1-dependent regulation of autophagy pathways has been characterized. However, the autophagy-dependent regulation of TBK1 activity awaits further clarification. Here, we observed that TBK1 is recruited to SQSTM1/p62-containing aggregates via the selective autophagy receptor TAX1BP1. In these aggregates, TBK1 phosphorylates SQSTM1/p62 at serine 403 and thus presumably regulates the efficient engulfment and clearance of these structures. We found that TBK1 activation is strongly increased if FIP200, a component of the autophagy-inducing ULK1 complex, is not present or cannot bind to TAX1BP1. Given our collective findings, we hypothesize that FIP200 ensures the inducible activation of TBK1 at SQSTM1/p62 condensates.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-92408-4
  2. Autophagy. 2021 Jul 09. 1-23
    Targeting autophagy in disease: established and new strategies.
    Muhammed Kocak, Saba Ezazi Erdi, Guillem Jorba, Inés Maestro, Judith Farrés, Vladimir Kirkin, Ana Martinez, Ole Pless.
      Macroautophagy/autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved pathway responsible for clearing cytosolic aggregated proteins, damaged organelles or invading microorganisms. Dysfunctional autophagy leads to pathological accumulation of the cargo, which has been linked to a range of human diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, infectious and autoimmune diseases and various forms of cancer. Cumulative work in animal models, application of genetic tools and pharmacologically active compounds, has suggested the potential therapeutic value of autophagy modulation in disease, as diverse as Huntington, Salmonella infection, or pancreatic cancer. Autophagy activation versus inhibition strategies are being explored, while the role of autophagy in pathophysiology is being studied in parallel. However, the progress of preclinical and clinical development of autophagy modulators has been greatly hampered by the paucity of selective pharmacological agents and biomarkers to dissect their precise impact on various forms of autophagy and cellular responses. Here, we summarize established and new strategies in autophagy-related drug discovery and indicate a path toward establishing a more efficient discovery of autophagy-selective pharmacological agents. With this knowledge at hand, modern concepts for therapeutic exploitation of autophagy might become more plausible.Abbreviations: ALS: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase; ATG: autophagy-related gene; AUTAC: autophagy-targeting chimera; CNS: central nervous system; CQ: chloroquine; GABARAP: gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor-associated protein; HCQ: hydroxychloroquine; LYTAC: lysosome targeting chimera; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; NDD: neurodegenerative disease; PDAC: pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma; PE: phosphatidylethanolamine; PIK3C3/VPS34: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase catalytic subunit type 3; PtdIns3K: class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; PtdIns3P: phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate; PROTAC: proteolysis-targeting chimera; SARS-CoV-2: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; ULK1: unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1.
    Keywords:  Autophagy activators; autophagy inhibitors; autophagy modulators; clinical trials; drug discovery
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2021.1936359
  3. Hepatology. 2021 Jul 07.
    An mTORC1-Plin3 pathway is essential to activate lipophagy and protects against hepatosteatosis.
    Marina Garcia-Macia, Adrián Santos-Ledo, Jack Leslie, Hannah L Paish, Amy L Collins, Rebecca S Scott, Abigail Watson, Rachel A Burgoyne, Steve White, Jeremy French, John Hammond, Lee A Borthwick, Jelena Mann, Juan P Bolaños, Viktor I Korolchuk, Fiona Oakley, Derek A Mann.
       BACKGROUND & AIMS: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common hepatic pathology in western countries and no treatment is currently available. NAFLD is characterized by the aberrant hepatocellular accumulation of fatty acids in the form of lipid droplets (LD). Recently, it was shown that liver LD degradation occurs via a process termed lipophagy; a novel form of autophagy. However, the molecular mechanisms governing liver lipophagy are elusive. Here, we aimed to ascertain the key molecular players that regulate hepatic lipophagy and their importance in NAFLD.
    APPROACH & RESULTS: We analyzed the formation and degradation of LD in vitro (fibroblasts and primary mouse hepatocytes), in vivo and ex vivo (mouse and human liver slices) and focused on the role of the autophagy master regulator mammalian Target Of Rapamycin Complex 1 (mTORC1) and the LD coating protein Plin3 in these processes. We show that the autophagy machinery is recruited to the LD upon hepatic overload of oleic acid in all experimental settings. This led to activation of lipophagy, a process that was abolished by Plin3 knockdown using RNA interference. Furthermore, Plin3 directly interacted with the autophagy proteins Fip200 and Atg16L, suggesting that Plin3 functions as a docking protein or is involved in autophagosome formation to activate lipophagy. Finally, we show that mTORC1 phosphorylated Plin3 to promote LD degradation.
    CONCLUSIONS: These results reveal that mTORC1 regulates liver lipophagy through a mechanism dependent on Plin3 phosphorylation. We propose that stimulating this pathway can enhance lipophagy in hepatocytes to help protect the liver from lipid-mediated toxicity, thus offering a new therapeutic strategy in NAFLD.
    Keywords:  autophagy; fatty liver disease; hepatocytes; lipid droplets; perilipin
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.32048
  4. Methods Cell Biol. 2021 ;pii: S0091-679X(20)30188-6. [Epub ahead of print]164 63-72
    Autophagic flux assessment by immunoblot.
    Qi Wu, Ai-Ling Tian, Hui Pan, Oliver Kepp, Guido Kroemer.
      Autophagy is one of the main adaptive mechanisms to maintain cellular homeostasis in response to multiple stresses. During autophagy diverse cellular components such as damaged organelles or superfluous proteins are targeted for lysosomal degradation. Importantly, during the initiation of autophagy MAP1LC3B (better known as LC3) lipidates into the membrane of the forming phagophore, which facilitates the formation and lengthening of autophagosomes. In addition, the autophagy receptor SQSTM1 (better known as p62) selectively recruits various cargos to autophagosomes for lysosomal degradation. Both, the conversion of LC3 as well as the degradation of p62 can be assessed as means of monitoring autophagy. Here we detail a protocol for assessing these key events of the autophagic flux via immunoblot.
    Keywords:  Autophagic cargo; Drug discovery; LC3; Lipidation; Lysosomal degradation
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mcb.2020.10.005
  5. Methods Cell Biol. 2021 ;pii: S0091-679X(20)30192-8. [Epub ahead of print]164 167-185
    Assessment of mammalian endosomal microautophagy.
    Gregory J Krause, Ana Maria Cuervo.
      Endosomal microautophagy (eMI) is a type of autophagy that allows for the selective uptake and degradation of cytosolic proteins in late endosome/multi-vesicular bodies (LE/MVB). This process starts with the recognition of a pentapeptide amino acid KFERQ-like targeting motif in the substrate protein by the hsc70 chaperone, which then enables binding and subsequent uptake of the protein into the LE/MVB compartment. The recognition of a KFERQ-like motif by hsc70 is the same initial step in chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA), a form of selective autophagy that degrades the hsc70-targeted proteins in lysosomes in a LAMP-2A dependent manner. The shared step of substrate recognition by hsc70, originally identified for CMA, makes it now necessary to differentiate between the two pathways. Here, we detail biochemical and imaging-based methods to track eMI activity in vitro with isolated LE/MVBs and in cells in culture using fluorescent reporters and highlight approaches to distinguish whether a protein is a substrate of eMI or CMA.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; Chaperones; Late endosomes; Multi-vesicular bodies; Organelle isolation; Protein degradation; Protein targeting; Proteostasis
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mcb.2020.10.009
  6. Methods Cell Biol. 2021 ;pii: S0091-679X(20)30212-0. [Epub ahead of print]164 113-118
    Quantitative determination of mitophagy by fluorescence microscope.
    Zhiyu Li, Qi Wu, Chenyuan Li, Shengrong Sun, Zhong Wang, Shan Zhu.
      Mitophagy is an evolutionally conserved cellular process that eliminates dysfunctional and excess mitochondria, thereby facilitating mitochondrial quality control and metabolic recycling. In addition, mitophagy is essential for cellular homeostasis and tissue development, and mitophagic dysfunction is related to various pathologies including neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Thus, accurate quantitative measurement of mitophagy is one of the hot topics in the field of mitochondrial research. Fluorescence microscopical technology, one of the most widely used technologies at present, can well explain the occurrence and activity of mitophagy. Here, we introduce in detail an experimental method for the immunofluorescence-based quantitativ determination of mitophagy, which not only servers the in-depth study of mitochondrial homeostasis regulation, but also allows for the analyzing mitochondrial autophagy pathologies such as aging, neurodegenerative diseases and cancer.
    Keywords:  Detection; Fluorescence microscope; Method; MitoTracker; Mitophagy
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mcb.2020.12.006
  7. J Cell Sci. 2021 Jul 01. pii: jcs233742. [Epub ahead of print]134(13):
    The evolution of autophagy proteins - diversification in eukaryotes and potential ancestors in prokaryotes.
    Sidi Zhang, Yutaro Hama, Noboru Mizushima.
      Autophagy is a degradative pathway for cytoplasmic constituents, and is conserved across eukaryotes. Autophagy-related (ATG) genes have undergone extensive multiplications and losses in different eukaryotic lineages, resulting in functional diversification and specialization. Notably, even though bacteria and archaea do not possess an autophagy pathway, they do harbor some remote homologs of Atg proteins, suggesting that preexisting proteins were recruited when the autophagy pathway developed during eukaryogenesis. In this Review, we summarize our current knowledge on the distribution of Atg proteins within eukaryotes and outline the major multiplication and loss events within the eukaryotic tree. We also discuss the potential prokaryotic homologs of Atg proteins identified to date, emphasizing the evolutionary relationships and functional differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic proteins.
    Keywords:  Atg; Autophagy; Evolution; Prokaryotic homolog
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1242/jcs.233742
  8. Autophagy. 2021 Jul 07. 1-3
    A new insight into the lens: cytosolic PLAAT phospholipases degrade organelles to make the lens transparent.
    Hideaki Morishita, Tomoya Eguchi, Noboru Mizushima.
      All membrane-bound organelles are degraded during the terminal differentiation of lens fiber cells. How these organelles are degraded has been a long-standing question in biology. We recently revealed that PLAAT (phospholipase A and acyltransferase)-family phospholipases degrade organelles in the lens independently of macroautophagy. Here, we discuss the mechanism and physiological relevance of this new mode of intracellular degradation.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; HRASLS; PLA2G16; PLAAT; lens; mice; organelle degradation; phospholipase; zebrafish
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2021.1950372
  9. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2021 ;9 685625
    Binding Features and Functions of ATG3.
    Dongmei Fang, Huazhong Xie, Tao Hu, Hao Shan, Min Li.
      Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved catabolic process that is essential for maintaining cellular, tissue, and organismal homeostasis. Autophagy-related (ATG) genes are indispensable for autophagosome formation. ATG3 is one of the key genes involved in autophagy, and its homologs are common in eukaryotes. During autophagy, ATG3 acts as an E2 ubiquitin-like conjugating enzyme in the ATG8 conjugation system, contributing to phagophore elongation. ATG3 has also been found to participate in many physiological and pathological processes in an autophagy-dependent manner, such as tumor occurrence and progression, ischemia-reperfusion injury, clearance of pathogens, and maintenance of organelle homeostasis. Intriguingly, a few studies have recently discovered the autophagy-independent functions of ATG3, including cell differentiation and mitosis. Here, we summarize the current knowledge of ATG3 in autophagosome formation, highlight its binding partners and binding sites, review its autophagy-dependent functions, and provide a brief introduction into its autophagy-independent functions.
    Keywords:  ATG3; autophagy; binding feature; cancer; function; homeostasis; phosphatidylethanolamine; post-translational modification
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2021.685625
  10. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2021 Jul 08.
    Membrane perturbation by lipidated Atg8 underlies autophagosome biogenesis.
    Tatsuro Maruyama, Jahangir Md Alam, Tomoyuki Fukuda, Shun Kageyama, Hiromi Kirisako, Yuki Ishii, Ichio Shimada, Yoshinori Ohsumi, Masaaki Komatsu, Tomotake Kanki, Hitoshi Nakatogawa, Nobuo N Noda.
      Autophagosome biogenesis is an essential feature of autophagy. Lipidation of Atg8 plays a critical role in this process. Previous in vitro studies identified membrane tethering and hemi-fusion/fusion activities of Atg8, yet definitive roles in autophagosome biogenesis remained controversial. Here, we studied the effect of Atg8 lipidation on membrane structure. Lipidation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Atg8 on nonspherical giant vesicles induced dramatic vesicle deformation into a sphere with an out-bud. Solution NMR spectroscopy of Atg8 lipidated on nanodiscs identified two aromatic membrane-facing residues that mediate membrane-area expansion and fragmentation of giant vesicles in vitro. These residues also contribute to the in vivo maintenance of fragmented vacuolar morphology under stress in fission yeast, a moonlighting function of Atg8. Furthermore, these aromatic residues are crucial for the formation of a sufficient number of autophagosomes and regulate autophagosome size. Together, these data demonstrate that Atg8 can cause membrane perturbations that underlie efficient autophagosome biogenesis.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41594-021-00614-5
  11. Cell Death Dis. 2021 Jul 03. 12(7): 671
    Nrf2 activation induces mitophagy and reverses Parkin/Pink1 knock down-mediated neuronal and muscle degeneration phenotypes.
    Sentiljana Gumeni, Eleni-Dimitra Papanagnou, Maria S Manola, Ioannis P Trougakos.
      The balanced functionality of cellular proteostatic modules is central to both proteome stability and mitochondrial physiology; thus, the age-related decline of proteostasis also triggers mitochondrial dysfunction, which marks multiple degenerative disorders. Non-functional mitochondria are removed by mitophagy, including Parkin/Pink1-mediated mitophagy. A common feature of neuronal or muscle degenerative diseases, is the accumulation of damaged mitochondria due to disrupted mitophagy rates. Here, we exploit Drosophila as a model organism to investigate the functional role of Parkin/Pink1 in regulating mitophagy and proteostatic responses, as well as in suppressing degenerative phenotypes at the whole organism level. We found that Parkin or Pink1 knock down in young flies modulated proteostatic components in a tissue-dependent manner, increased cell oxidative load, and suppressed mitophagy in neuronal and muscle tissues, causing mitochondrial aggregation and neuromuscular degeneration. Concomitant to Parkin or Pink1 knock down cncC/Nrf2 overexpression, induced the proteostasis network, suppressed oxidative stress, restored mitochondrial function, and elevated mitophagy rates in flies' tissues; it also, largely rescued Parkin or Pink1 knock down-mediated neuromuscular degenerative phenotypes. Our in vivo findings highlight the critical role of the Parkin/Pink1 pathway in mitophagy, and support the therapeutic potency of Nrf2 (a druggable pathway) activation in age-related degenerative diseases.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41419-021-03952-w
  12. Mol Metab. 2021 Jul 02. pii: S2212-8778(21)00131-9. [Epub ahead of print] 101286
    MTORC1 inhibition drives crinophagic degradation of glucagon.
    Sangam Rajak, Sherwin Xie, Archana Tewari, Sana Raza, Wu Yajun, Boon-Huat Bay, Paul M Yen, Rohit A Sinha.
       OBJECTIVE: Crinophagy is a secretory granule-specific autophagic process that regulates hormone content and secretion in endocrine cells. However, despite being one of the earliest described autophagic processes, its mechanism of action and regulation in mammalian cells remains unclear.
    METHODS AND RESULTS: Here, we examined mammalian crinophagy and its modulation regulate hormone secretion in a glucagon-producing mouse pancreatic α-cell line, alpha TC1 clone 9 (αTC9) and in vivo. Western blot, electron microscopy and immunofluorescence analyses were performed to study crinophagy and glucagon secretion in αTC9 cells and C57BL/6 mice, in response to the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (MTORC1) inhibitor rapamycin. Amino acid depletion and pharmacological inhibition of MTORC1 increased the shuttling of glucagon-containing secretory granules into lysosomes for crinophagic degradation to reduce glucagon secretion via a macroautophagy-independent mechanism. Furthermore, MTORC1 inhibition reduced both intracellular and secreted glucagon in rapamycin-treated mice, in response to hypoglycaemia.
    CONCLUSION: In summary, we have identified a novel crinophagic mechanism of intracellular glucagon turnover in pancreatic α-cells regulated by MTORC1 signaling.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; Crinophagy; Diabetes; Glucagon; Lysosomes; MTORC1; Rapamycin
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101286
  13. Autophagy. 2021 Jul 07. 1-18
    RAB7 activity is required for the regulation of mitophagy in oocyte meiosis and oocyte quality control during ovarian aging.
    Xin Jin, Kehan Wang, Lu Wang, Wenwen Liu, Chi Zhang, Yuexin Qiu, Wei Liu, Huiyu Zhang, Dong Zhang, Zhixia Yang, Tinghe Wu, Jing Li.
      There is increasing evidence that mitophagy, a specialized form of autophagy to degrade and clear long-lived or damaged mitochondria, is impaired in aging and age-related disease. Previous study has demonstrated the obesity-exposed oocytes accumulate and transmit damaged mitochondria due to an inability to activate mitophagy. However, it remains unknown whether mitophagy functions in oocyte and what's the regulatory mechanism in oocyte aging. In the study, when fully grown oocytes were treated with CCCP, an uncoupling agent to induce mitophagy, we found the activation of the PRKN-mediated mitophagy pathway accompanied the blockage of meiosis at metaphase I stage. Our result then demonstrated its association with the decreased activity of RAB7 and all the observed defects in CCCP treated oocytes could be effectively rescued by microinjection of mRNA encoding active RAB7Q67L or treatment with the RAB7 activator ML098. Further study indicated PRKN protein level as a rate-limiting factor to facilitate degradation of RAB7 and its GEF (guanine nucleotide exchange factor) complex CCZ1-MON1 through the ubiquitin-proteasome system. In GV oocytes collected during ovarian aging, we found the age-related increase of PINK1 and PRKN proteins and a significant decrease of RAB7 which resulted in defects of mitophagosome formation and the accumulation of damaged mitochondria. The age-related retardation of female fertility was improved after in vivo treatment of ML098. Thus, RAB7 activity is required to maintain the balance between mitophagy and chromosome stability and RAB7 activator is a good candidate to ameliorate age-related deterioration of oocyte quality.Abbreviations: ATG9: autophagy related 9A; ATP: adenosine triphosphate; CALCOCO2/NDP52: calcium binding and coiled-coil domain 2; CCCP: carbonyl cyanide 3-chlorophenylhydrazone; CCZ1: CCZ1 vacuolar protein trafficking and biogenesis associated; GAPDH: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; GAPs: GTPase-activating proteins; GEF: guanine nucleotide exchange factor; GV: germinal vesicle; GVBD: germinal vesicle breakdown; LAMP1: lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1; MI: metaphase I stage of meiosis; MII: metaphase II stage of meiosis; Mito: MitoTracker; mtDNA: mitochondrial DNA; MON1: MON1 homolog, secretory trafficking associated; OPTN: optineurin; PINK1: PTEN induced putative kinase 1; PRKN: parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin protein ligase; RAB7: RAB7, member RAS oncogene family; ROS: reactive oxygen species; TEM: transmission electron microscopy; TOMM20/TOM20: translocase of outer mitochondrial membrane 20; TUBB: tubulin, beta; UB: ubiquitin.
    Keywords:  Aging; PRKN; RAB7; meiosis; mitophagy; oocyte
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2021.1946739
  14. mBio. 2021 Jul 06. e0187120
    Galectin-8 Senses Phagosomal Damage and Recruits Selective Autophagy Adapter TAX1BP1 To Control Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection in Macrophages.
    Samantha L Bell, Kayla L Lopez, Jeffery S Cox, Kristin L Patrick, Robert O Watson.
      Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) causes one of the deadliest infectious diseases worldwide. Upon infection, Mtb is phagocytosed by macrophages and uses its virulence-associated ESX-1 secretion system to modulate the host cell. We showed previously that the ESX-1 secretion system perturbs the Mtb-containing phagosome, and a population (∼30%) of intracellular Mtb is tagged with ubiquitin and targeted to selective autophagy. However, our understanding of how macrophages sense and respond to damaged Mtb-containing phagosomes remains incomplete. Here, we demonstrate that several cytosolic glycan-binding proteins called galectins recognize Mtb-containing phagosomes; in macrophage cell lines and in primary macrophages, galectin-3, -8, and -9 are all recruited to the same Mtb population that colocalizes with selective autophagy markers (ubiquitin, p62, and LC3). To test whether galectins are required for controlling Mtb replication in macrophages, we generated CRISPR/Cas9 knockouts and found that galectin-8-/- and galectin-3/8/9-/- macrophages were similarly defective in targeting Mtb to selective autophagy and controlling replication. This suggests galectin-8 plays a unique role in anti-Mtb autophagy. In investigating galectin-8's role, we identified a novel and specific interaction between galectin-8 and the selective autophagy adapter TAX1BP1 and found that this galectin-8/TAX1BP1 interaction was necessary for macrophages to efficiently target Mtb to selective autophagy. Remarkably, overexpressing galectin-8 increased targeting of Mtb to autophagy and limited Mtb replication. Taken together, these data demonstrate that while several galectins are capable of recognizing damaged Mtb-containing phagosomes, galectin-8 plays a privileged role in recruiting downstream autophagy machinery and may represent a promising target for host-directed tuberculosis therapies. IMPORTANCE Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infects one-quarter of the global population and causes one of the deadliest infectious diseases worldwide. Macrophages are the first line of defense against Mtb infection and are typically incredibly efficient at destroying intracellular pathogens, but Mtb has evolved to survive and replicate in this harsh environment. Previous work has found that a portion of intracellular Mtb bacilli damage their phagosomes, leaving them vulnerable to detection by the host and delivery to an antibacterial pathway called selective autophagy. Here, we show that in macrophages, galectin-8 recognizes damaged Mtb-containing phagosomes and targets Mtb to selective autophagy; we found that galectin-8, unlike other highly similar and closely related galectins, is required for targeting and controlling Mtb in macrophages. The specific role for galectin-8 appears to stem from its interaction with TAX1BP1, a selective autophagy adapter protein. Interestingly, overexpressing galectin-8 helps macrophages target and control Mtb, highlighting the importance of galectin-8 in the innate immune response to Mtb.
    Keywords:  bacterial pathogenesis; host-pathogen interactions; innate immunity; xenophagy
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.01871-20
  15. J Cell Physiol. 2021 Jul 08.
    Regulation of autophagy by protein methylation and acetylation in cancer.
    Minsol Jeon, Jisu Park, Eunbi Yang, Hee-Ji Baek, Hyunkyung Kim.
      Autophagy is a highly conserved mechanism responsible for cellular homeostasis and integrity in a variety of physiological conditions. Materials targeted for degradation are directed to autophagosomes and autolysosomes, where they are broken down into their base components. Aberrant regulation of autophagy is significantly associated with various cancers and neurodegenerative diseases. Recently, accumulating evidence has revealed that the coordinated regulation of histone and non-histone protein modification is associated with autophagy. In this review, we highlight the recent progress that has been made in elucidating the molecular basis of protein methylation and acetylation associated with autophagy at the transcriptional and posttranslational levels. Furthermore, we discuss the importance of describing causality between protein methylation/acetylation and autophagy regulation as compelling therapeutic opportunities in cancer pathogenesis and progression.
    Keywords:  autophagy; cancer; protein acetylation; protein methylation
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.30502
  16. Matrix Biol. 2021 Jul 01. pii: S0945-053X(21)00062-7. [Epub ahead of print]
    Autophagy: Instructions from the extracellular matrix.
    Liliana Schaefer, Ivan Dikic.
      In recent years, extensive research has uncovered crucial regulatory roles for the extracellular matrix (ECM) in regulating autophagy. Autophagy is a ubiquitous and highly conserved catabolic process that allows the selective removal and recycling of cytosolic components via lysosomal or vacuolar degradation. Due to its pivotal role in cellular homeostasis, the impairment of autophagy is involved in the pathophysiology of numerous diseases, comprising infectious diseases, immune and neurodegenerative disorders, renal and hepatic diseases, intervertebral and cartilage disorders, as well as fibrosis and cancer. Several ECM-derived proteoglycans and proteins, including decorin, biglycan, endorepellin, endostatin, collagen VI, and plasminogen kringle 5, have been identified as strong inducers of autophagy. In contrast, laminin α2, perlecan, and lumican exert opposite function by suppressing autophagy. Importantly, by direct interaction with various receptors, which interplay with their co-receptors and adhesion molecules, the ECM is able to direct autophagy in a molecular and cell context-specific manner. Thus, vast pharmacological potential resides in translating this knowledge into the development of ECM-derived therapeutics selectively regulating autophagy.
    Keywords:  AMPK; CD44; Proteoglycan; Toll-like receptor; biglycan; collagen; decorin
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matbio.2021.06.002
  17. Methods Cell Biol. 2021 ;pii: S0091-679X(20)30209-0. [Epub ahead of print]164 11-25
    Monitoring lipophagy in kidney epithelial cells in response to shear stress.
    Federica Roccio, Aurore Claude-Taupin, Joëlle Botti, Etienne Morel, Patrice Codogno, Nicolas Dupont.
      Mechanical stress has been shown to induce the degradation of lipid droplets in kidney epithelial cells. Here, we illustrate the technical equipment and devices that are currently used in our laboratory to apply shear stress on cells. We provide a detailed protocol to monitor lipophagy in response to shear stress. The aim of this review is to guide and help people understand the challenges in studying acidic lipolysis in cells subjected to fluid flow.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; Kidney epithelial cells; Lipid droplets; Lipophagy; Shear stress
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mcb.2020.12.003
  18. Dev Cell. 2021 Jun 28. pii: S1534-5807(21)00516-5. [Epub ahead of print]
    Proteostasis failure and mitochondrial dysfunction leads to aneuploidy-induced senescence.
    Jery Joy, Lara Barrio, Celia Santos-Tapia, Daniela Romão, Nikolaos Nikiforos Giakoumakis, Marta Clemente-Ruiz, Marco Milán.
      Aneuploidy, an unbalanced number of chromosomes, is highly deleterious at the cellular level and leads to senescence, a stress-induced response characterized by permanent cell-cycle arrest and a well-defined associated secretory phenotype. Here, we use a Drosophila epithelial model to delineate the pathway that leads to the induction of senescence as a consequence of the acquisition of an aneuploid karyotype. Whereas aneuploidy induces, as a result of gene dosage imbalance, proteotoxic stress and activation of the major protein quality control mechanisms, near-saturation functioning of autophagy leads to compromised mitophagy, accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria, and the production of radical oxygen species (ROS). We uncovered a role of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) in driving senescence as a consequence of dysfunctional mitochondria and ROS. We show that activation of the major protein quality control mechanisms and mitophagy dampens the deleterious effects of aneuploidy, and we identify a role of senescence in proteostasis and compensatory proliferation for tissue repair.
    Keywords:  Drosophila; aneuploidy; autophagy; chromosomal instability; mitochondrial dysfunction; mitophagy; proteotoxic stress; senescence; tissue repair
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.devcel.2021.06.009
  19. Cell Res. 2021 Jul 08.
    Degradation of lipid droplets by chimeric autophagy-tethering compounds.
    Yuhua Fu, Ningxie Chen, Ziying Wang, Shouqing Luo, Yu Ding, Boxun Lu.
      Degrading pathogenic proteins by degrader technologies such as PROTACs (proteolysis-targeting chimeras) provides promising therapeutic strategies, but selective degradation of non-protein pathogenic biomolecules has been challenging. Here, we demonstrate a novel strategy to degrade non-protein biomolecules by autophagy-tethering compounds (ATTECs), using lipid droplets (LDs) as an exemplar target. LDs are ubiquitous cellular structures storing lipids and could be degraded by autophagy. We hypothesized that compounds interacting with both the LDs and the key autophagosome protein LC3 may enhance autophagic degradation of LDs. We designed and synthesized such compounds by connecting LC3-binding molecules to LD-binding probes via a linker. These compounds were capable of clearing LDs almost completely and rescued LD-related phenotypes in cells and in two independent mouse models with hepatic lipidosis. We further confirmed that the mechanism of action of these compounds was mediated through LC3 and autophagic degradation. Our proof-of-concept study demonstrates the capability of degrading LDs by ATTECs. Conceptually, this strategy could be applied to other protein and non-protein targets.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41422-021-00532-7
  20. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2021 Jul 08.
    New tricks for the old autophagy protein Atg8.
    Eeva-Liisa Eskelinen.
      
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41594-021-00618-1
  21. J Cell Mol Med. 2021 Jul 09.
    Carbofuran affects cellular autophagy and developmental senescence through the impairment of Nrf2 signalling.
    Alam Khan, Tanjeena Zaman, Talukdar Mohammad Fahad, Tanjima Akther, Md Faruk Hasan, Tarannum Naz, Shuji Kishi.
      Carbofuran is a broad-spectrum synthetic pesticide. Its exposure to non-target mammals affects the biological system through the induction of oxidative stress. Since oxidative stress is a major contributing factor to cellular autophagy and senescence, our present investigation determined the impacts of carbofuran-induced oxidative stress on cellular autophagy and senescence. A transmembrane protein, Spinster homolog 1 (Spns1), is involved in autophagic lysosomal metabolism. Its mutation accelerates the cellular senescence and shortens the lifespan. Using a transgenic zebrafish line, expressing fluorescent microtubules-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (EGFP-LC3) at the membrane of the autophagosome, we found that carbofuran affects autophagic lysosomal biogenesis in wild-type zebrafish and exacerbates autophagic defect in spns1-mutant zebrafish. In real-time mortality study, carbofuran has shortened the lifespan of wild-type fish. Nrf2 is a stress-responsive transcription factor that regulates the expression of antioxidant genes (such as gstp1) in the prevention of oxidative stress-mediated cellular damage. To assess the effect of carbofuran on Nrf2 signalling, we established a dual-monitoring transgenic zebrafish line, expressing gstp1 promoter-driven EGFP and mCherry-tagged Neh2 domain of Nrf2. Our results suggested that the exposure of carbofuran has down-regulated both Nrf2 and Gstp1 expressions. Overall, carbofuran affects cellular autophagy and accelerates senescence by enervating the Nrf2 signalling.
    Keywords:  Nrf2 pathway; autophagy; carbofuran; cellular senescence; zebrafish
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1111/jcmm.16774
  22. J Neuroinflammation. 2021 Jul 04. 18(1): 148
    Phloretin suppresses neuroinflammation by autophagy-mediated Nrf2 activation in macrophages.
    Tess Dierckx, Mansour Haidar, Elien Grajchen, Elien Wouters, Sam Vanherle, Melanie Loix, Annick Boeykens, Dany Bylemans, Kévin Hardonnière, Saadia Kerdine-Römer, Jeroen F J Bogie, Jerome J A Hendriks.
       BACKGROUND: Macrophages play a dual role in neuroinflammatory disorders such as multiple sclerosis (MS). They are involved in lesion onset and progression but can also promote the resolution of inflammation and repair of damaged tissue. In this study, we investigate if and how phloretin, a flavonoid abundantly present in apples and strawberries, lowers the inflammatory phenotype of macrophages and suppresses neuroinflammation.
    METHODS: Transcriptional changes in mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages upon phloretin exposure were assessed by bulk RNA sequencing. Underlying pathways related to inflammation, oxidative stress response and autophagy were validated by quantitative PCR, fluorescent and absorbance assays, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) knockout mice, western blot, and immunofluorescence. The experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model was used to study the impact of phloretin on neuroinflammation in vivo and confirm underlying mechanisms.
    RESULTS: We show that phloretin reduces the inflammatory phenotype of macrophages and markedly suppresses neuroinflammation in EAE. Phloretin mediates its effect by activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway. Nrf2 activation was attributed to 5' AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-dependent activation of autophagy and subsequent kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) degradation.
    CONCLUSIONS: This study opens future perspectives for phloretin as a therapeutic strategy for neuroinflammatory disorders such as MS.
    TRIAL REGISTRATION: Not applicable.
    Keywords:  Autoimmunity; Macrophages; Multiple sclerosis; Neuroinflammation; Phloretin
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-021-02194-z
  23. J Leukoc Biol. 2021 Jul 04.
    The Akt-mTORC1 pathway mediates Axl receptor tyrosine kinase-induced mesangial cell proliferation.
    Yuxuan Zhen, Tracy L McGaha, Fred D Finkelman, Wen-Hai Shao.
      Glomerulonephritis (GN), an important pathologic feature of many renal diseases, is frequently characterized by mesangial cell proliferation. We and others have previously shown that the TAM family receptor tyrosine kinases Axl, Mer, and Tyro-3 contribute to cell survival, proliferation, migration, and clearance of apoptotic cells (ACs); that Axl contributes to GN by promoting mesangial cell proliferation; and that small molecule inhibition of Axl ameliorates nephrotoxic serum-induced GN in mice. We now show that stimulation of renal mesangial cell Axl causes a modest increase in intracellular Ca2+ and activates NF-κB, mTOR, and the mTOR-containing mTORC1 complex, which phosphorylates the ribosomal protein S6. Axl-induction of Akt activation is upstream of NF-κB and mTOR activation, which are mutually codependent. Axl-induced NF-κB activation leads to Bcl-xl up-regulation. Axl is more important than Mer at mediating AC phagocytosis by mesangial cells, but less important than Mer at mediating phagocytosis of ACs by peritoneal macrophages. Taken together, our data suggest the possibility that Axl mediates mesangial cell phagocytosis of ACs and promotes mesangial cell proliferation by activating NF-κB and mTORC1.
    Keywords:  Axl; NF-κB; TAM receptors; apoptotic cell clearance; mTORC1; mesangial cell proliferation
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/JLB.2A1220-850RRR
  24. Methods Cell Biol. 2021 ;pii: S0091-679X(20)30200-4. [Epub ahead of print]164 1-9
    Monitoring TFEB translocation.
    Guo Chen, Chenglong Mu, Yanfang Chen, Na An, Yushan Zhu, Oliver Kepp, Guido Kroemer.
      The transcription factor EB (TFEB) plays a critical role in autophagy induction and lysosomal biogenesis by orchestrating the expression of autophagy- and lysosome-related genes. In response to a series of stresses such as nutrient starvation, TFEB translocates from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, where it exerts its regulatory function. The activity of TFEB is tightly regulated by multiple phosphorylation and acetylation sites. Methods that rely on the analysis of posttranslational modification as a proxy for TFEB activation are often misleading. Here, we elaborate on protocols for monitoring nuclear translocation of TFEB by fluorescence microscopy.
    Keywords:  Biosensor; High content; Lysosomal biogenesis; Macroautophagy; TFEB
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mcb.2020.10.017
  25. Methods Cell Biol. 2021 ;pii: S0091-679X(20)30196-5. [Epub ahead of print]164 39-46
    Autophagy assessment in circulating leukocytes.
    José Manuel Bravo-San Pedro, Federico Pietrocola.
      The activation of autophagy has long been recognized as a central mechanism of healthspan and lifespan regulation at the organismal level, thus spurring major interest in identifying pharmacological or lifestyle interventions able to ignite the autophagic reaction in vivo. Consistently, there is growing need for the implementation in the preclinical practice of an "autophagometer," to be intended as a simple and non-invasive method to measure the autophagic flux in living organisms. Using fasting as the prototypical trigger of autophagy, we describe here a system (based on a leupeptin-based assay and video-flow cytometric detection of LC3B puncta) to quantitate autophagy in circulating leukocytes in mouse. We suggest that this method can be reliably used in the experimental routine to validate the pro-autophagy action of candidate drugs in vivo.
    Keywords:  Aging; Blood; Caloric restriction; Fasting; LC3; Leupeptin; Lysosome; Metabolism
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mcb.2020.10.013
  26. J Proteomics. 2021 Jun 30. pii: S1874-3919(21)00213-X. [Epub ahead of print]246 104314
    iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomics suggests mitophagy involvement after Rice black-streaked dwarf virus acquisition in insect vector small brown planthopper Laodelphax striatellus Fallén.
    Haoqiu Liu, Prem Prakash Das, Jianhua Zhang, Lu Yu, Man Wang, Qingsong Lin, Yijun Zhou, Qiufang Xu, Sek-Man Wong.
      Plant viruses trigger numerous responses in their insect vectors. Using iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomics analysis, early responses of the insect vector, the small brown planthopper (Laodelphax striatellus Fallén, SBPH), after acquiring Rice black-streaked dwarf virus (RBSDV) at 3 days and 5 days post first access to diseased plants (padp) were revealed. A total of 582 differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) in SBPH with a fold change >1.500 or <0.667 (p-value < 0.05) were identified. The proteomic analysis in SBPH at 3 days padp revealed 106 highly abundant proteins and 193 of low abundance, while 5 days padp revealed 214 highly abundant proteins and 182 of low abundance. Among them, 51 highly abundant proteins and 42 of low abundance were shown consistently at both 3 days and 5 days padp. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis mapping and Gene Ontology (GO) term classification suggested impairment of mitochondria in SBPH after RBSDV acquisition, and the 77 out of 582 differentially abundant SBPH proteins analyzed by the STRING program revealed the interaction network of the mitochondrial DAPs, showing an overall down-regulation of mitochondrial proteins including the electron transport chain proteins and mitochondrial ribosome proteins. The high abundance of Parkin at 5 days padp suggests that activation of mitophagy induced degradation of mitochondria occurred. Further verification of autophagy/mitophagy-related genes by reverse-transcription quantitative RT-PCR (RT-qPCR) in SBPH after RBSDV acquisition showed up-regulation of the autophagy receptors Optineurin (OPTN), Sequestosome-1 (SQSTM1, also known as p62) and Tax1-binding protein 1 (TAX1BP1) which targets ubiquitinated damaged mitochondria during mitophagy. The phosphorylation of the three autophagy receptors may be up-regulated through an increase of transcription level TRAF-associated NFκB activator (TANK)-binding kinase 1 (TBK1). As a result, an overall reduction in the abundance of mitochondrial proteins was observed and the selective autophagic degradation was up-regulated through increased transcription level of OPTN, p62/SQSTM1, TAX1BP1 and TBK1. Therefore, acquisition of RBSDV associated with up-regulated autophagy and selective mitochondrial degradation in SBPH suggest prevention of mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis and extension of the vector life span. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: RBSDV causes severe yield loss in rice plants. RBSDV is transmitted efficiently only through SBPH. It is important to understand how RBSDV infects SBPH in a persistent, circulative and propagative manner. However, there has been no study on the interaction between RBSDV and SBPH at the early acquisition stage using a proteomics approach. In this study, we combined iTRAQ technique and LC-MS/MS to analyze the vector proteomics at both the initial and latent infection stages after RBSDV acquisition and verified the results by RT-qPCR. Our results revealed that significantly low DAPs were involved in various pathways, including biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, ribosomes, carbon metabolism, biosynthesis of amino acids and TCA cycle. Further clustering of the DAPs revealed significant changes in SBPH mitochondria, including decreased proteins in mitochondrial ribosomes and electron transport chain complex I, II and V. On the other hand, there was a high abundance of Parkin, suggesting the occurrence of mitochondria damage and subsequent Parkin-mediated mitophagy for clearance of impaired mitochondria. Moreover, the decreased level of PMPCB in terms of gene expression and protein abundance suggested decreased PINK1 turnover, promoting Parkin/PINK1-mediated mitophagy. Further analysis on autophagy/mitophagy-related gene transcription level indicated up-regulation of OPTN, p62/SQSTM1, TAX1BP1 and TBK1, promoting selective autophagy in SBPH after RBSDV acquisition. These findings provided new insights into the effects of RBSDV on SBPH after early acquisition by selective degradation of mitochondria, especially on reprogramming of energy metabolism and decreased mitochondria biogenesis, to prevent apoptosis and prolong the life span of SBPH post virus acquisition.
    Keywords:  Differentially abundant proteins; Mitochondria; Parkin; Protein degradation; Rice black-streaked dwarf virus
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jprot.2021.104314
  27. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2021 Jul 07.
    MEHP induces pyroptosis and autophagy alternation by cathepsin B activation in INS-1 cells.
    Lijie Jiang, Tianming Qiu, Xiaofeng Yao, Huangben Chen, Kun Yao, Xiance Sun, Guang Yang, Liping Jiang, Cong Zhang, Ningning Wang, Hongying Zhang, Xiaofang Liu.
      Mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) is a primary metabolite of di-(2-ethyl hexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in the organism, which is a major component of plasticizers used worldwide. Exposure to DEHP causes pancreatic beta-cell (INS-1 cells) dysfunction, which is associated with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. The present study shows that MEHP decreases the cell viability of INS-1 cells in a concentration-dependent manner and induces pyroptosis at 400 μM. Furthermore, the 400 μM MEHP causes increased lysosomal membrane permeability and cathepsin B (CTSB) release, resulting in NLRP3 activation and pyroptosis. Additionally, low concentration of MEHP (50-200 μM) induces upregulation of autophagy, while 400 μM MEHP reduces autophagy level in INS-1 cells via altering mTORC1 phosphorylation. Surprisingly, CTSB contributes to mTORC1 activation in INS-1 cells treated with 400 μM MEHP. Furthermore, autophagy can alleviate inflammatory response by reducing CTSB activation in MEHP-treated INS-1 cells. These results indicate that exposure to MEHP induces pyroptosis and upregulates autophagy levels in a CTSB-dependent manner, and autophagy plays an essential role in pyroptosis onset in INS-1 cells. Our findings provide a new perspective of the connection between CTSB and autophagy.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; Cathepsin B; INS-1 cell; MEHP; Pyroptosis; mTORC1
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14997-x
  28. Methods Cell Biol. 2021 ;pii: S0091-679X(20)30197-7. [Epub ahead of print]164 73-94
    Assessing autophagic flux in yeast.
    Katharina Kainz, Tobias Pendl, Frank Madeo, Didac Carmona-Gutierrez.
      
    Keywords:  Alkaline phosphatase; Autophagy; GFP; GFP-Atg8; Saccharomyces cerevisiae; Yeast
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mcb.2020.10.014
  29. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2021 Jul 03. pii: S0006-291X(21)01004-4. [Epub ahead of print]569 47-53
    Increased LAMP2A levels correlate with a shorter disease-free survival of HER2 negative breast cancer patients and increased breast cancer cell viability.
    Igor Tokarchuk, Félice A Janser, Anna M Schläfli, Marta Teixeira Pinto, Magali Humbert, Nicolas J Niklaus, Sabina Berezowska, Rupert Langer, Mario P Tschan.
      Chaperone Mediated Autophagy (CMA) is a selective autophagy pathway deregulated in many cancers. In this study, we were aiming at understanding the importance of CMA in breast cancer. To this end, we examined the expression of the CMA markers HSP8 and LAMP2A in different breast cancer cell lines and found a wide range of LAMP2A expression levels across the cell lines analyzed. Next, we applied a specific immunohistochemical staining protocol to a tissue microarray derived from a cohort of 365 breast cancer patients. Therefore, we were able to find a correlation of high LAMP2A but not HSPA8 (HSC70) with worse disease free survival in patients with HER2 negative tumors (p = 0.026) which was independent prognostic parameter from pT category, pN category and grading in a multivariate model (HR = 1.889; 95% CI = 1.039-3.421; p = 0.037). In line, low LAMP2A levels decrease proliferation of the breast cancer cell lines T47D and MCF-7 in vitro. Our data suggest that LAMP2A supports a more severe breast cancer cell phenotype.
    Keywords:  Breast cancer; CMA; Chaperone mediated autophagy; HSC70; HSP8; LAMP2A
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2021.06.082
  30. Zool Res. 2021 Jul 18. pii: 2095-8137(2021)04-0482-05. [Epub ahead of print]42(4): 482-486
    Inhibition of mTOR signaling by rapamycin protects photoreceptors from degeneration in rd1 mice.
    Jia-Liang Yang, Tong-Dan Zou, Fang Yang, Zheng-Lin Yang, Hou-Bin Zhang.
      Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is an inherited retinal degenerative disease that begins with defective rod photoreceptor function, followed by impaired cone function, and complete blindness in its late stage. To date, however, there is no effective treatment for RP. By carrying a nonsense mutation in the Pde6b gene, rd1 mice display elevated cGMP in conjunction with higher intracellular Ca 2+ in their rod photoreceptors, resulting in fast retinal degeneration. Ca 2+ has been linked to activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. The mTOR pathway integrates extracellular and intracellular signals to sense the supply of nutrients and plays a central role in regulating protein and lipid synthesis as well as apoptosis and autophagy. In the present study, we showed that mTOR and phosphorylated mTOR (p-mTOR, activated form of mTOR) are up-regulated in rd1 photoreceptors at postnatal day 10 (P10), a pre-degenerative stage. Moreover, the downstream effectors of mTOR, such as pS6K and S6K, are also increased, suggesting activation of the mTOR signaling pathway. Intravitreal administration of rapamycin, a negative regulator of mTOR, inhibits the mTOR pathway in rd1 photoreceptors. Consequently, the progression of retinal degeneration is slower and retinal function is enhanced, possibly mediated by activation of autophagy in the photoreceptors. Taken together, these results highlight rapamycin as a potential therapeutic avenue for retinal degeneration.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; Photoreceptors; Retinal degeneration; Retinitis pigmentosa; mTOR, Rapamycin; rd1
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2021.049
  31. Mol Cell. 2021 Jun 30. pii: S1097-2765(21)00450-0. [Epub ahead of print]
    SREBP-1c impairs ULK1 sulfhydration-mediated autophagic flux to promote hepatic steatosis in high-fat-diet-fed mice.
    Thuy T P Nguyen, Do-Young Kim, Yu-Geon Lee, Young-Seung Lee, Xuan T Truong, Jae-Ho Lee, Dae-Kyu Song, Taeg Kyu Kwon, So-Hyun Park, Chang Hwa Jung, Changjong Moon, Timothy F Osborne, Seung-Soon Im, Tae-Il Jeon.
      A metabolic imbalance between lipid synthesis and degradation can lead to hepatic lipid accumulation, a characteristic of patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Here, we report that high-fat-diet-induced sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP)-1c, a key transcription factor that regulates lipid biosynthesis, impairs autophagic lipid catabolism via altered H2S signaling. SREBP-1c reduced cystathionine gamma-lyase (CSE) via miR-216a, which in turn decreased hepatic H2S levels and sulfhydration-dependent activation of Unc-51-like autophagy-activating kinase 1 (ULK1). Furthermore, Cys951Ser mutation of ULK1 decreased autolysosome formation and promoted hepatic lipid accumulation in mice, suggesting that the loss of ULK1 sulfhydration was directly associated with the pathogenesis of NAFLD. Moreover, silencing of CSE in SREBP-1c knockout mice increased liver triglycerides, confirming the connection between CSE, autophagy, and SREBP-1c. Overall, our results uncover a 2-fold mechanism for SREBP-1c-driven hepatic lipid accumulation through reciprocal activation and inhibition of hepatic lipid biosynthesis and degradation, respectively.
    Keywords:  SREBP-1c; ULK1; autophagy; hydrogen sulfide; steatosis; sulfhydration
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2021.06.003
  32. Methods Cell Biol. 2021 ;pii: S0091-679X(21)00015-7. [Epub ahead of print]164 157-165
    Quantitative determination of autophagy flux by probes.
    Zhong Wang, Qi Wu, Chenyuan Li, Shengrong Sun, Zhiyu Li, Juan Wu.
      Macroautophagy is an intracellular degradation system in which autophagosomes and autolysosomes degrade the contents they contain in order to realize cell homeostasis and organelle renewal. Measuring autophagy activity and autophagic flux is very important for studying the role of autophagy, but accurate measurement of autophagic flux is quite complicated. Here, we use the GFP-mRFP-LC3 tandem probe to evaluate the cell autophagic flux. GFP is more sensitive to acidic environment and can be degraded in autolysosome due to the acidic environment. On the contrary, mRFP can be stably present in autolysosome due to its better tolerance to PH reduction. Hence, autophagic flux can be evaluated by calculating the ratio of GFP/RFP signal values. In addition, using this probe, we can more accurately measure the basal autophagic flux and induced autophagic flux in cells or animals. Summarily, the GFP-mRFP-LC3 tandem probe is a simple quantitative method to evaluate autophagic flux of cells and even whole organism.
    Keywords:  Autophagy flux; Detection; Fluorescence microscope; Method; Probes
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mcb.2021.02.002
  33. Methods Cell Biol. 2021 ;pii: S0091-679X(21)00014-5. [Epub ahead of print]164 95-112
    Multiple analysis of mitochondrial metabolism, autophagy and cell death.
    D Liu, H T Lai, F Peyre, C Brenner.
      In the perspective to evaluate the toxicity of drug candidates or the exploration of intracellular signaling pathways of cell stress response and pathophysiological conditions, we propose to evaluate cell death, autophagy, mitochondrial network and energetic metabolism by a series of optimized joint protocols for neonatal primary rat cardiomyocytes or H9c2 cardiac cell line in 96 well microtiter plates. We used Digitoxigenin and Digoxin, two cardiac glycosides, and Rapamycin as control drugs, for inhibition of oxidative stress-induced cell death and autophagy induction, respectively.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; Cell death; Cytotoxicity; Metabolism; Mitochondria; Viability
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mcb.2021.02.001
  34. Nutr Res Rev. 2021 Jul 08. 1-40
    Ferroptosis Regulation by Nutrient Signaling.
    Yingao Qi, Xiaoli Zhang, Zhihui Wu, Min Tian, Fang Chen, Wutai Guan, Shihai Zhang.
      Tremendous progress has been made in the field of ferroptosis since this regulated cell death process was first named in 2012. Ferroptosis is initiated upon redox imbalance and driven by excessive phospholipid peroxidation. Levels of multiple intracellular nutrients (iron, selenium, vitamin E, and coenzyme Q10) are intimately related to the cellular antioxidant system and participate in the regulation of ferroptosis. Dietary intake of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) regulates ferroptosis by directly modifying the fatty acid composition in cell membranes. In addition, amino acids and glucose (energy stress) manipulate the ferroptosis pathway through the nutrient-sensitive kinases mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Understanding the molecular interaction between nutrient signals and ferroptosis sensors might help in the identification of the roles of ferroptosis in normal physiology and in the development of novel pharmacological targets for the treatment of ferroptosis-related diseases.
    Keywords:  AMPK; Fe; Ferroptosis; Nutrient sensing; Se; mTORC1
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954422421000226
  35. Methods Cell Biol. 2021 ;pii: S0091-679X(21)00016-9. [Epub ahead of print]164 187-200
    Measuring oxidation within LC3-associated phagosomes that optimizes MHC class II restricted antigen presentation.
    Laure-Anne Ligeon, Maria Pena-Francesch, Christian Münz.
      LC3-associated phagocytosis (LAP) uses components of the molecular machinery of macroautophagy and is involved in the presentation of extracellular antigens by Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) class II molecules. It is initiated by receptor-mediated phagocytosis and results in the formation of LAPosomes: single-membrane vesicles that are decorated with the macroautophagy protein LC3B. LAPosomes have been described to prolong antigen presentation in macrophages but the molecular mechanism of this process is just beginning to be understood. Known key regulators of LAPosome formation are Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), which can modulate the pH and the oxidative state within LAPosomes. Here, we present two complementary methods to monitor oxidation in LAPosomes and to study its function in MHC class II restricted antigen presentation, both in primary human macrophages: (I) Coating the LAP-trigger zymosan with OxyBURST allows semi-quantitative assessment of oxidation levels within LAPosomes by confocal microscopy. (II) The co-culture of macrophages with CD4+T cells to assess the effects of LAP on Candida albicans antigen presentation by measuring IL-17A and IFN-γ secretion.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; CD4(+) T cells; LAP; NADPH oxidase 2 (NOX2); Reactive oxygen species (ROS)
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mcb.2021.02.003
  36. J Investig Med. 2021 Jul 06. pii: jim-2021-002016. [Epub ahead of print]
    Autophagy and cancer metastasis: a Trojan horse.
    Javad Alizadeh, Shahrokh Lorzadeh, Saeid Ghavami.
      
    Keywords:  cancer; carcinoma; cell death; cell physiological phenomena
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1136/jim-2021-002016
  37. Methods Cell Biol. 2021 ;pii: S0091-679X(20)30186-2. [Epub ahead of print]164 27-38
    Live cell imaging of LC3 dynamics.
    Giulia Cerrato, Allan Sauvat, Oliver Kepp, Guido Kroemer.
      Macroautophagy (hereafter referred to as autophagy) serves the liberation of energy resources through the degradation of cellular components and is characterized by the formation of double-membraned vesicles, commonly referred to as autophagosomes. Microtubule-associated proteins 1A/1B light chain 3B (hereafter referred to as LC3) plays a crucial role during autophagosome formation, as cleavage of its immature form and subsequent conjugation to phosphatidylethanolamine facilitates autophagosomal membrane biogenesis. Indeed, the redistribution of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-conjugated LC3 from a diffuse cytosolic pattern into forming autophagosomes constitutes a morphological phenotype (commonly referred to as LC3 puncta) applicable to phenotypic analysis. The quantification of LC3 puncta in end-point assays has extensively been used in the past, allowing for the identification of autophagy modulators. Here, we describe a robust method employing automated confocal live cell imaging for the study of time-resolved LC3 dynamics. Furthermore, this method can be used to differentiate between phenotypes such as the homogeneous distribution of LC3 puncta in the cytoplasm, and the aggregation of LC3 clusters juxtaposed to the nucleus thus allowing for functional predictions.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; Fatty acids; Image analysis; LC3 aggregation
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mcb.2020.10.003
  38. Free Radic Biol Med. 2021 Jul 02. pii: S0891-5849(21)00401-9. [Epub ahead of print]
    Protein S-nitrosylation and oxidation contribute to protein misfolding in neurodegeneration.
    Tomohiro Nakamura, Chang-Ki Oh, Xu Zhang, Stuart A Lipton.
      Neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease are characterized by progressive degeneration of synapses and neurons. Accumulation of misfolded/aggregated proteins represents a pathological hallmark of most neurodegenerative diseases, potentially contributing to synapse loss and neuronal damage. Emerging evidence suggests that misfolded proteins accumulate in the diseased brain at least in part as a consequence of excessively generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). Mechanistically, not only disease-linked genetic mutations but also known risk factors for neurodegenerative diseases, such as aging and exposure to environmental toxins, can accelerate production of ROS/RNS, which contribute to protein misfolding - in many cases mimicking the effect of rare genetic mutations known to be linked to the disease. This review will focus on the role of RNS-dependent post-translational modifications, such as S-nitrosylation and tyrosine nitration, in protein misfolding and aggregation. Specifically, we will discuss molecular mechanisms whereby RNS disrupt the activity of the cellular protein quality control machinery, including molecular chaperones, autophagy/lysosomal pathways, and the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). Because chronic accumulation of misfolded proteins can trigger mitochondrial dysfunction, synaptic damage, and neuronal demise, further characterization of RNS-mediated protein misfolding may establish these molecular events as therapeutic targets for intervention in neurodegenerative diseases.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; Molecular chaperones; Protein S-Nitrosylation; Protein misfolding; Tyrosine nitration; Ubiquitin-proteasome system
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2021.07.002
  39. Expert Opin Ther Targets. 2021 Jul 08.
    Drugs that offer the potential to reduce hospitalization and mortality from SARS-CoV-2 infection: The possible role of the Sigma-1 receptor and autophagy.
    James Michael Brimson, Mani Iyer Prasanth, Dicson Sheeja Malar, Sirikalaya Brimson, Premrutai Thitilertdecha, Tewin Tencomnao.
       INTRODUCTION: Despite the availability of new vaccines for SARS-COV-2, there has been slow uptake and problems with supply in some parts of the world. Hence, there is still a necessity for drugs that can prevent hospitalization of patients and reduce the strain on health care systems. Drugs with sigma affinity potentially provide protection against the most severe symptoms of SARS-COV-2 and could prevent mortality via interactions with the sigma-1 receptor.
    AREAS COVERED: This review examines the role of the sigma-1 receptor and autophagy in SARS-CoV-2 infections and how they may be linked. The authors reveal how sigma ligands may reduce the symptoms, complications and deaths resulting from SARS-CoV-2 and offer insights on those patient cohorts that may benefit most from these drugs.
    EXPERT OPINION: Drugs with sigma affinity potentially offer protection against the most severe symptoms of SARS-VOV-2 via interactions with the sigma-1 receptor. Agonists of the sigma-1 receptor may provide protection of the mitochondria, activate mitophagy to remove damaged and leaking mitochondria, prevent ER stress, manage calcium ion transport, and induce autophagy to prevent cell death in response to infection.
    Keywords:  COVID-19; Chlorpromazine; Donepezil; Fluoxetine; Fluvoxamine; Long COVID; SARS-CoV-2; Sigma-1; autophagy; critical care
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1080/14728222.2021.1952987
  40. J Cell Biochem. 2021 Jul 08.
    Impact of single amino acid substitution on the structure and function of TANK-binding kinase-1.
    Mohd Umair, Shama Khan, Taj Mohammad, Alaa Shafie, Farah Anjum, Asimul Islam, Md Imtaiyaz Hassan.
      Tank-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) is a serine/threonine protein kinase involved in various signaling pathways and subsequently regulates cell proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, antiviral and antitumor immunity. Dysfunction of TBK1 can cause many complex diseases, including autoimmunity, neurodegeneration, and cancer. This dysfunction of TBK1 may result from single amino acid substitutions and subsequent structural alterations. This study analyzed the effect of substituting amino acids on TBK1 structure, function, and subsequent disease using advanced computational methods and various tools. In the initial assessment, a total of 467 mutations were found to be deleterious. After that, in detailed structural and sequential analyses, 13 mutations were found to be pathogenic. Finally, based on the functional importance, two variants (K38D and S172A) of the TBK1 kinase domain were selected and studied in detail by utilizing all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulation for 200 ns. MD simulation, including correlation matrix and principal component analysis, helps to get deeper insights into the TBK1 structure at the atomic level. We observed a substantial change in variants' conformation, which may be possible for structural alteration and subsequent TBK1 dysfunction. However, substitution S172A shows a significant conformational change in TBK1 structure as compared to K38D. Thus, this study provides a structural basis to understand the effect of mutations on the kinase domain of TBK1 and its function associated with disease progression.
    Keywords:  TANK-binding kinase 1; amino acid substitutions; deleterious mutations; molecular dynamics simulation; neurodegenerative disease; principal component analysis; structural genomics
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/jcb.30070
  41. Physiol Rep. 2021 Jul;9(13): e14958
    Crosstalk between beta-adrenergic and insulin signaling mediates mechanistic target of rapamycin hyperactivation in liver of high-fat diet-fed male mice.
    Sadia Ashraf, Nadia Ashraf, Gizem Yilmaz, Romain Harmancey.
      Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common cause of chronic liver disease. While increased nutrient intake and sympathetic activity have been associated with the disease, the pathogenesis of NAFLD remains incompletely understood. We investigated the impact of the interaction of high dietary fat and sugar intake with increased beta-adrenergic receptor (β-AR) signaling on the activity of nutrient-sensing pathways and fuel storage in the liver. C57BL/6J mice were fed a standard rodent diet (STD), a high-fat diet (HFD), a high-fat/high-sugar Western diet (WD), a high-sugar diet with mixed carbohydrates (HCD), or a high-sucrose diet (HSD). After 6 week on diets, mice were treated with isoproterenol (ISO) and the activity of liver mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1)-related signaling analyzed by immunoblotting and correlated with tissue triglyceride and glycogen contents. ISO-stimulated AKT- and ERK-mediated activation of mTORC1 in STD-fed mice. Consumption of all four high-calorie diets exacerbated downstream activation of ribosomal protein S6 kinase beta-1 (S6K1) in response to ISO. S6K1 activity was greater with the fat-enriched HFD and WD and correlated with the presence of metabolic syndrome and a stronger activation of AKT and ERK1/2 pathways. Fat-enriched diets also increased triglyceride accumulation and inhibited glycogen mobilization under β-AR stimulation. In conclusion, crosstalk between β-AR and insulin signaling may contribute to HFD-induced hepatic steatosis through ERK1/2- and AKT-mediated hyperactivation of the mTORC1/S6K1 axis. The findings provide further rationale for the development of therapies aimed at targeting augmented β-AR signaling in the pathogenesis of NAFLD.
    Keywords:  fatty liver; glycogen; high-fat diet; insulin; sympathetic nervous system
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.14958
  42. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2021 Jul 06.
    Commercially Available Eye Drops Containing Trehalose Protect Against Dry Conditions via Autophagy Induction.
    Eva Hernandez, Clémence Taisne, Marion Lussignol, Audrey Esclatine, Marc Labetoulle.
      Purpose: Evaluation of marketed eye drops with or without trehalose, a nonreducing natural osmoprotector disaccharide, in autophagy modulation and its role in cell survival during desiccation. Materials and Methods: Eye drops containing either sodium hyaluronate (SH) (Hyabak®, Thea, France) or a combination of SH with trehalose (Thealose Duo®, Thea, France) were compared with control conditions to evaluate the ability to modulate autophagy in human epithelial cells in vitro. Autophagy was monitored using LC3, a marker of the autophagic machinery, by fluorescence microscopy and immunoblot analysis. Control and autophagy-deficient cells treated with eye drops were exposed to desiccation to mimic dry eyes and cell survival was evaluated by thiazolyl blue tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Trehalose, a known autophagy inducer was used as a positive control. Results: Artificial tears containing SH with and without trehalose induce a complete autophagic flux, as indicated by an increase in the number of autophagosomes and autolysosomes, and the accumulation of the lipidated form of LC3 associated with complete autophagy. In addition, there was a synergistic effect of SH for autophagy induction when combined with trehalose, compared with each of the components alone. Survival of cells treated with both eye drops and exposed to desiccation was decreased in autophagy-deficient cells, demonstrating the essential role of autophagy on eye drop protection. Conclusions: Autophagic flux is induced by SH-containing eye drops, and this phenomenon is enhanced in combination with trehalose. We also demonstrated that autophagy induction is involved in the osmoprotective effects of both trehalose and SH-containing eye drops, to maintain epithelial cell homeostasis in dry conditions.
    Keywords:  artificial tears; autophagy; dry eye; osmoprotection; trehalose
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1089/jop.2020.0119
  43. J Cancer. 2021 ;12(16): 4933-4944
    MicroRNA-124-3p inhibited progression of nasopharyngeal carcinoma by interaction with PCDH8 and the inactivation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway.
    Jiacai Ye, Quanxing Liao, Xiaohui Zeng, Chang Liu, Yan Ding, Xuefeng Liu, Lisi Zeng, Tianpei Guan, Yawei Yuan.
      Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is characterised by distinct geographical distribution and is particularly prevalent in Asian countries. But the mechanisms related to the progression of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) are not completely understood. MiR-124-3p functions as a tumor suppressor in many kinds of human cancers. Here, we explored the effects and mechanism of miR-124-3p on the proliferation and colony formation in NPC. In our study, we reported that miR-124-3p was significantly downregulated in NPC tissues and cell lines. Overexpression miR-124-3p decreased NPC cell proliferation and colony formation abilities. Meanwhile, knockdown miR-124-3p increased proliferation and colony formation abilities. Additionally, dual-luciferase assay showed that miR-124-3p could positively regulated PCDH8 by targeting its 3'-UTR. Overexpression of PCDH8 could partially rescue the proliferation and colony formation role of miR-124-3p inhibitor. Our study indicated that miR-124-3p played a tumor suppressor by directly interacting with PCDH8 and inhibiting the activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway. Overall, we found that miR-124-3p inhibited the activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in NPC by interacting with PCDH8. Thus, PCDH8 may be a potential molecular target that impeded NPC proliferation and colony formation.
    Keywords:  MicroRNA-124-3p; growth; nasopharyngeal carcinoma; phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin; protocadherin-8; tumor proliferation
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.7150/jca.57152
  44. Cell Death Discov. 2021 Jun 25. 7(1): 159
    NF-κB is involved in the regulation of autophagy in mutant p53 cells in response to ionizing radiation.
    Ying Zhu, Wenqing Zuo, Xiao Shen, Yali Liu, Yifan Zhao, Yajie Xiong, Huimin Cao, Yan Wang, Zhongqin Liang.
      Chemotherapy and ionizing radiation (IR) can induce autophagy in tumor cells. Here, we report that the level of autophagy in tumor cells was related to the background of p53 gene that NF-κB acts as a negative regulator of autophagy in mutant p53 (p53-R273H) cells, and that acetylation was involved in the IR-induced nuclear translocation of NF-κB. We found that autophagy-related proteins were highly expressed in wild-type p53 (wt-p53) cells and that IR increased their levels further. p53-R273H cells exhibited low levels of autophagy; there was no change following IR treatment. The nuclear translocation of p65 was upregulated in p53-R273H cells following IR; when p65 was competitively inhibited from entering the nucleus with SN50, the level of autophagy increased. The nuclear translocation of p65 was mediated by p300; this factor also regulates the nuclear behavior of NF-κB. The knockdown of p300 in p53-R273H cells led to an inhibition of p65 expression and an increase in autophagy. In addition, the inhibition of p300 or p65 not only activated autophagy, it also induced radiosensitivity in p53-R273H cells. The relationship between the p53 gene, NF-κB, and autophagy was further analyzed in a mouse model of xenograft tumors and in clinical tumor pathological specimens; the results were consistent with the in vitro experiments. Our findings indicate that autophagy may be regulated by NF-κB in p53-R273H cells. These findings may help to improve the therapeutic strategy adopted for tumors related to the mutant p53-R273H gene; such therapy would aim to target NF-κB to induce autophagy.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41420-021-00533-w
  45. Cell Rep. 2021 Jul 06. pii: S2211-1247(21)00693-8. [Epub ahead of print]36(1): 109317
    Structure of the TELO2-TTI1-TTI2 complex and its function in TOR recruitment to the R2TP chaperone.
    Mohinder Pal, Hugo Muñoz-Hernandez, Dennis Bjorklund, Lihong Zhou, Gianluca Degliesposti, J Mark Skehel, Emma L Hesketh, Rebecca F Thompson, Laurence H Pearl, Oscar Llorca, Chrisostomos Prodromou.
      The R2TP (RUVBL1-RUVBL2-RPAP3-PIH1D1) complex, in collaboration with heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), functions as a chaperone for the assembly and stability of protein complexes, including RNA polymerases, small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs), and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-like kinases (PIKKs) such as TOR and SMG1. PIKK stabilization depends on an additional complex of TELO2, TTI1, and TTI2 (TTT), whose structure and function are poorly understood. The cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of the human R2TP-TTT complex, together with biochemical experiments, reveals the mechanism of TOR recruitment to the R2TP-TTT chaperone. The HEAT-repeat TTT complex binds the kinase domain of TOR, without blocking its activity, and delivers TOR to the R2TP chaperone. In addition, TTT regulates the R2TP chaperone by inhibiting RUVBL1-RUVBL2 ATPase activity and by modulating the conformation and interactions of the PIH1D1 and RPAP3 components of R2TP. Taken together, our results show how TTT couples the recruitment of TOR to R2TP with the regulation of this chaperone system.
    Keywords:  HSP90 chaperone; PIKK; R2TP; RUVBL1; RUVBL2; TELO2; TTI1; TTI2; TTT; mTOR
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109317
  46. Front Pharmacol. 2021 ;12 695267
    Autophagy: A Novel Pharmacological Target in Diabetic Retinopathy.
    Annagrazia Adornetto, Carlo Gesualdo, Maria Luisa Laganà, Maria Consiglia Trotta, Settimio Rossi, Rossella Russo.
      Autophagy is the major catabolic pathway involved in removing and recycling damaged macromolecules and organelles and several evidences suggest that dysfunctions of this pathway contribute to the onset and progression of central and peripheral neurodegenerative diseases. Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a serious complication of diabetes mellitus representing the main preventable cause of acquired blindness worldwide. DR has traditionally been considered as a microvascular disease, however this concept has evolved and neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation have emerged as important determinants in the pathogenesis and evolution of the retinal pathology. Here we review the role of autophagy in experimental models of DR and explore the potential of this pathway as a target for alternative therapeutic approaches.
    Keywords:  LC3; autophagosomes; autophagy; diabetic retinopathy; hyperglycemia; retinal degeneration
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.695267
  47. Neurosci Lett. 2021 Jun 30. pii: S0304-3940(21)00472-9. [Epub ahead of print] 136094
    microRNA-106b-containing extracellular vesicles affect autophagy of neurons by regulating CDKN2B in Parkinson's disease.
    Xue Bai, Qiaoyun Dong, Li Zhao, Yan Yao, Bo Wang.
      Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most frequent neurodegenerative disorder, and autophagy dysfunction is involved in the pathogenesis of PD. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC)-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been established as an attractive therapeutic tool, since they can serve as biological nanoparticles with beneficial effects in PD. Herein, the study aimed to investigate the effects of EVs derived microRNA (miR)-106b on autophagy of neurons in PD. Following the development of a mouse model of PD, we conducted behavior test, TUNEL assay and HE staining to verify the success of modeling. Afterward, MSC-derived EVs were extracted and identified. In hippocampal tissues and neurons of PD mice, miR-106b was poorly expressed, while CDKN2B was highly expressed. miR-106b shuttled by MSC-derived EVs increased neuronal survival, autophagy, LC3II/LC3I ratio and Bcl-2 protein expression, while inhibited neuronal apoptosis and Bax expression in PD mice. It was also confirmed that CDKN2B is a downstream target of miR-106b. Overexpression of CDKN2B reversed the protective effects of miR-106b-containing EVs on neurons in mice with PD. Collectively, miR-106b-containing EVs alleviate neuronal apoptosis and enhance neuronal autophagy in PD by downregulating CDKN2B.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; CDKN2B; Neuron; Parkinson’s disease, Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles; microRNA-106b
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2021.136094
  48. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2021 Jul 08. 44 87-108
    Parkinson's Disease Genetics and Pathophysiology.
    Gabriel E Vázquez-Vélez, Huda Y Zoghbi.
      Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by degeneration of the substantia nigra pars compacta and by accumulation of α-synuclein in Lewy bodies. PD is caused by a combination of environmental factors and genetic variants. These variants range from highly penetrant Mendelian alleles to alleles that only modestly increase disease risk. Here, we review what is known about the genetics of PD. We also describe how PD genetics have solidified the role of endosomal, lysosomal, and mitochondrial dysfunction in PD pathophysiology. Finally, we highlight how all three pathways are affected by α-synuclein and how this knowledge may be harnessed for the development of disease-modifying therapeutics.
    Keywords:  GBA; LRRK2; Parkinson's disease; genetics; lysosome; mitochondria; vesicular trafficking; α-synuclein
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-neuro-100720-034518
  49. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol. 2021 Jul 02.
    A new application of mTOR inhibitor drugs as potential therapeutic agents for COVID-19.
    Habibeh Mashayekhi-Sardoo, Hesamoddin Hosseinjani.
      Since December 2019, the COVID-19 emerging pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 has resulted in one of the most important global health threats. Concerning the absence of an approved effective vaccine or drug for the treatment and outcome improvement of COVID-19 patients, and the role of SARS-CoV-2 in activation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, we decided to review the previous data regarding the therapeutic effect of mTOR inhibitor drugs in COVID-19 patients. We searched the scientific databases such as Web of Science, Embase, Medline (PubMed), Scopus, and Google Scholar using appropriate keywords to find suitable studies or suggestions until October 2020. The findings of the current study confirmed that mTOR inhibitor drugs through suggested mechanisms such as T cell adjustment, induction of autophagy without apoptosis, reduction of viral replication, restoration of the T-cell function, decrease cytokine storm, and moderation of the mTOR-PI3K-AKT pathway activation bring about a therapeutic impact in COVID-19 patients. Taken together, it is necessary to find a suitable therapy for the COVID-19 pandemic emerging. In this regard, we clarify that it is valuable to consider the therapeutic effect of mTOR inhibitor drugs and metformin by its mTOR inhibition property in the treatment of COVID-19 patients.
    Keywords:  COVID-19; SARS-CoV-2; coronavirus; mTOR inhibitors; metformin; rapamycin; sirolimus
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1515/jbcpp-2020-0495
  50. Commun Biol. 2021 Jul 08. 4(1): 849
    Cryo-electron tomography provides topological insights into mutant huntingtin exon 1 and polyQ aggregates.
    Jesús G Galaz-Montoya, Sarah H Shahmoradian, Koning Shen, Judith Frydman, Wah Chiu.
      Huntington disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative trinucleotide repeat disorder caused by an expanded poly-glutamine (polyQ) tract in the mutant huntingtin (mHTT) protein. The formation and topology of filamentous mHTT inclusions in the brain (hallmarks of HD implicated in neurotoxicity) remain elusive. Using cryo-electron tomography and subtomogram averaging, here we show that mHTT exon 1 and polyQ-only aggregates in vitro are structurally heterogenous and filamentous, similar to prior observations with other methods. Yet, we find filaments in both types of aggregates under ~2 nm in width, thinner than previously reported, and regions forming large sheets. In addition, our data show a prevalent subpopulation of filaments exhibiting a lumpy slab morphology in both aggregates, supportive of the polyQ core model. This provides a basis for future cryoET studies of various aggregated mHTT and polyQ constructs to improve their structure-based modeling as well as their identification in cells without fusion tags.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-021-02360-2
  51. Pharmacol Res. 2021 Jul 05. pii: S1043-6618(21)00340-6. [Epub ahead of print] 105756
    Autophagy in vascular dementia and natural products with autophagy regulating activity.
    Wenzhe Wang, Ou Qiao, Haixia Ji, Xinyu Zhang, Xiaoying Han, Yi Zhang, Juan Wang, Xia Li, Wenyuan Gao.
      Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion(CCH)-induced vascular dementia(VD) is a common neurodegenerative disease which seriously affects the patient's quality of life. Therefore, it is critical to find an effective treatment of VD. Autophagy is a natural regulated mechanism that can remove dysfunctional proteins and organelles, however, over-activation or under-activationcan of autophagy can induce the apoptosis of cells. Although autophagy plays a role in the central nervous system is unquestionable, the effects of autophagy in the ischemic brain are still controversial. Some autophagy regulators have been tested, suggesting that both activation and inhibition of autophagy can improve the cognitive function. This article reviews the role of autophagy in CCH-induced VD to discuss whether autophagy has the potential to become a target for drug development and provides several potential compounds for treating vascular dementia.
    Keywords:  autophagy; chronic cerebral hypoperfusion; natural products; vascular dementia
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105756
  52. J Pathol. 2021 Jul 05.
    Lipophagy and prostate cancer: association with disease aggressiveness and proximity to periprostatic adipose tissue.
    A Fontaine, D Bellanger, R Guibon, F Bruyère, L Brisson, G Fromont.
      The prostate gland is surrounded by periprostatic adipose tissue (PPAT), which is believed to play a role in prostate cancer (PCa) progression. Cancer cells can take up lipids from the microenvironment and store them in lipid droplets (LD). Fatty acids released from LD are used by PCa cells as preferential metabolic fuels to provide energy and promote cancer progression. Recently, fatty acids have been associated with autophagy, a cellular recycling pathway. Lipophagy is a selective form of autophagy involved in LD degradation, the role of which in PCa progression remains unknown. Here, we explored markers of autophagy and lipophagy in human PCa tissues in correlation with factors of aggressiveness, and we evaluated the influence of PPAT adipocytes on autophagy and lipophagy. We analyzed markers of autophagy (p62, LC3), lipid droplets (LD) (PLIN and Oil Red O), androgen receptor (AR), proliferation (Ki67) and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (Zeb1) on 465 PCa samples. Co-cultures of PCa cell lines PC3 and 22RV1 with adipocytes isolated from patients' PPAT were used to analyze the influence of PPAT on autophagy and lipophagy in vitro. In human PCa tissues, we observed a correlation between markers of LD and those of autophagy, which are associated with clinical and biological factors of disease aggressiveness. In addition, PLIN staining was associated with AR expression. In locally advanced PCa, p62, LC3, and PLIN were increased in extraprostatic areas where cancer cells are in contact with PPAT. Co-culture of PCa cell lines with adipocytes decreased autophagy activity and increased LD flux in PC3 cells. These results suggest an active process of lipophagy in PCa, linked to disease aggressiveness, to the proximity of PPAT, and induced in vitro in co-culture with adipocytes. Lipophagy is therefore likely to be a crucial player in PCa progression. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
    Keywords:  adipocytes; autophagy; lipid droplets; lipophagy; periprostatic adipose tissue; prostate cancer; tumor microenvironment
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/path.5754
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